Very brief history of forgery

[LCR]

Here is the translation of the first part of a sketch of Adrian Darmon.
Continuation may follow - if there is interest - and maybe not - if boring, as you say
Please ignore the typos, reluctance to read, put the "raw" translation.

Art forgery traces its history from ancient times, when art, especially religious, took Double-role in society. It all started with borrowing methods of production, then - the stylistic characteristics of the subjects. Artists and artisans of Egypt, began to make copies and export them, that did not stop and neighboring nations to copy examples of Egyptian art. Based in Alexandria, the Greeks quickly began the production of such copies.

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Many of the masterpieces of ancient Greek art began in Rome as a canon of beauty. Respectively, from their exported from Greece, and then copied. However, the rich patricians necessarily want to buy their works of art were genuine. Then the traders, not too tortured by remorse, found a way to get rich quickly by bringing the production of copies, which they passed off as originals and sold to unsophisticated clients. They were assisted in this dishonest, but profitable to the artists. Production of forgery in Antiquity ended with the invasion of barbarians destroyed works throughout the territory of Rome.

Christianity is primarily interested in the religious side of art, and VI of XIV century in Europe, forged only relics of saints and relics, such as the Turin Shroud, which has long been regarded as the true shroud of Christ. Its technical and technological expertise has shown that it was done in the XIII century.

Now pointeresuemsya difference between a copy and counterfeit. Any copy is not a forgery. In order to learn the technique, the artists imitated his predecessors, celebrated masters of the past, and, above all, the ancient monuments. However, over time, art lovers and dealers began to accept these copies, remarkably made great artist for the original antique art.

Sometimes the artist gave her a copy of the original, to prove that he is not inferior to the great skill of the architects of the past. Thus Mikelanzhdelo carved statue, which he sold to Cardinal, give her a Roman script. Upon learning that he had been deceived, in a fit of anger, Cardinal destroyed it. Many artists of the XVII century were the monarchs of their copies to get their protection, so, Velazquez and Le Brann used this trick in the beginning of his career.

Doing "educational" copies, the artists had fun, passing them off as originals - Rafael manufactured as false Perugino, brushes Delacroix owned Dreams, Watteau, Velasquez and Rubens, Van Dyck also fabricated by Rubens.
Thus, as the art of managing the church, counterfeiting was a little, but as soon as the powers that be have to collect works of art, the number of counterfeits immediately increased.

However, this flowering of art forgery is observed at the beginning of the XIX century, with the advent of industrial society. Been re-opened the great masters of the XVIII century - Watteau, Fragonard, Boucher, Reynolds and Gainsborough, and the artists of the "second rank" to take up production of copies and imitations of these artists included in vogue. Later, these imitations have been taken for originals.

Fashion on trips to Europe, introduced by the English aristocracy, also played a role: Italian antiquarians considered it their duty to satisfy the aspirations of the many "tourist-class" to purchase a painting or sculpture, old masters, so that the production of counterfeit straightened.

In France, the fashion for Gothic with a light hand Viollet-le Duc spawned numerous fake Limoges enamels. Much Ado caused a history of the Louvre, who bought a gold tiara, supposedly a Scythian origin, which is not long before one has made iskustny Russia jeweler. This tiara was sold to the Louvre two Romanian swindlers, brothers, Hohmann, and on display visitors on 1 April 1887 (symptomatic date!), But will soon have expressed their doubts about its authenticity, since the reliefs on it were in very good condition - as if they were made yesterday, not 23 centuries ago! Conservative Munich museum, prevedshy examination, said that it is a montage of ancient elements of different origin. It produced an investigation that revealed in Ochakov workshop production of fakes, owned by brothers Hohmann, and later a jeweler - a competitor of our hapless poddelschika - gave his interrogators. However, these latter do not believe that he really created this tiara, and resentful poddelschik arrived in Paris, where the eyes of the astonished staff of the Louvre repeated his work.

In 1873 the brothers fabricated Penelli Etruscan sarcophagus. They buried him, and then "Open." He had such a "real" view that the British Museum bought it. The sarcophagus that was considered one of the most remarkable objects of Etruscan art up until one of the brothers-poddelschikov, tormented by remorse, did not admit fraud.

The success of such artists as Corot, led to an increase in the number of copies of their pictures. It should be noted that Corot, for instance, did not annoy the emergence of numerous imitators, on the contrary, he invited them to his studio, gave them valuable advice and even put on their works of his signature!

Another artist who was very much forged, was Monticelli.

In the late 70-ies of the XIX century there were art dealers, keen modernism or just the sensory benefits - Durand-Ruel, Vildenshtayn, seligmannite, Ruar and others - as well as collectors, have virtually unlimited capital. Rothschild, Pyrmont, Morgan, as well as Russian merchants have become interested in the works of Monet, Manet, Pissarro, Renoir. But this wave of fraud began during the First World War: the German occupying army officers have been sold thousands of counterfeit Corot (not less than 10000), made in the workshops of counterfeits in Brussels. Established and the first forgery and postimpresionizma impressionist masters from Cezanne to Van Gogh. Vlaminck, who later became a famous painter in his youth forge Corot and Cezanne, to ensure their suschestvovvanie.

By 20 th year prices for Van Gogh, famous for 15 years from now after his death, grew rapidly, and the complete catalog of his works was still in the drafting phase, so the Van Gogh interested poddelschikov. The clientele at this time greatly expanded, and many of the marshal, including the very famous, such as Lord Dyuvin, could not resist the temptation to sell counterfeit iskustno Van Gogh rich, but not versed in the art of customers.

Golden Age poddelschikov occurred in 1925, and not just in painting - furniture XVIII century was produced in the workshops Andre Mayfera in Orleans, and then sold as genuine. Mayfer himself was not involved in the marketing of these fabrications of very high quality, but never challenged the "authenticity" of items, made in his workshop.

In early 1930, Hans van Henricus Meygeren, Netherlandish artist, angered critics, did not give proper attention to his talent, has begun a thorough study of the great Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675). Art historians at that time knew no more than his 40 works. And Meygeren decided to "recreate" the lost work of Vermeer of Delft, the plot of the majority of whom wore a religious character.

Meygeren, restorer and teacher of painting, with extensive knowledge of technology and iconography of Vermeer. He realized he could use the fact that Vermeer was "discovered" only in the middle of the XIX century and most poorly understood (his first retrospective exhibition held at the Museum of Rotterdam only in 1935). Two years Meygeren held in Provence, carefully studying the techniques of Vermeer, and even after 2 years he took off the paint layer of a painting of XVII century and wrote on it "Emmaus pilgrims", and then presented his work to the expert Brediusu Abraham, who had come to a complete delight at the sight of this unknown masterpiece.

This forgery was purchased by the Royal Gallery in Rotterdam over 500,000 guilders, and Meygeren, hopeful his first success, started to "reconstruct" the other Vermeer, in particular, the paintings, "Jacob, Isaac's Blessing," "Jesus and the woman caught in adultery", etc. . During the German occupation appeared "Washerwoman" and "washing of the feet, which was sold at auction for 1.25 million guilders.

Troubles wartime Meygerenu helped in his business. Despite the fact that many experts were perplexed, noting the miraculous appearance on the market, so many lost Vermeer, and wondered about their origin, had to wait until Germany's defeat to the Netherlands authorities compiled a list of works of art, taken out by the Nazis, which found that "Jesus and the woman found guilty of adultery "and has not less than 4 paintings attributed to Vermeer, were sold to Goering and other Nazi dignitaries.
Arrested for collaboration, since he sold the enemies of national treasures, Meygerenu had to justify this accusation, which he did, confessing that he sold the Germans counterfeiting, which he produced himself. He told investigators that he wrote them on canvas XVII century, using the same pigments that Vermeer himself, but for "sostarivaniya" they used the oven.

But no one believed him, and, as proof of his allegations, he invited the judges to make a "Vermeer" in the presence of two experts, and that was done - so was written by Jesus, preached in the church, which now seems quite awkward.

Search made in his studio in Nice, allowed to find pigments, similar to those used by Vermeer, and one unfinished painting, which depicts a woman reading a letter. Meygerena sentenced to 1 st year in prison, where he died of a heart attack on 31 th October 1947

Nevertheless, his dazzling victory - he managed to fool the critics and get them to recognize his talent. In addition, the scandal, which was the basis of this history, served as a terrible advertisement for the Vermeer, whose quotation is rapidly soared. On the other hand, he sowed panic among conservatives museums, which began to doubt the authenticity of Vermeer, who were in their collections. As a result, pictures, previously considered to be owned by Vermeer's hand, like, "Girl in front virginalom", was filmed attribution. In 1993, she was transferred to the expertise of Sotheby's, and it took at least 10 years of analysis and to verify its authenticity. Then it was restored, and in 2003 sold more than 24 million euros.

One might think that if Meygeren was operating in a time when the art market has become much more mature, and methods of analysis - more advanced, he would not have been as a professional.

However, poddelschiki that operate in our time, have found other loopholes that allow them to mislead experts and art lovers. For example, the Englishman John Kokkett acting also under the name of John Dryu, in 1985, took advantage of the talent unrecognized artist John Mayatta, who wrote 2 pictures signed by Ben Nicholson and be genuine. John Kokkettu came to mind a great idea: first, to get from his friends, well known in the art market, proof that these works belong to them, and, secondly, to make a false letter from counterfeit art. In addition, John Kokkett received permission to view the archives of various museums, such as the Tate Galleries in London and the Courtauld Institute of Contemporary Art, which had lists of works of Nicholson, has found a way to make these lists made his request forgeries. He was arrested in 1999 and sentenced to 6-years in prison. After 2 years of his prematurely released.


In the late 1960's appeared on the scene of another poddelschik - Elmira de Hori, of Hungarian origin, who sold a lot of fakes in the United States about the mediation of former ballet dancer Fernand Legros, who had no his rivals in the inflation of the rich fool.

Elmir de Hori, who was born in 1905 in Hungary and lived on the island of Ibiza, the recipient of numerous aliases - Elmira von Khoury, Baron Elmir Hoffmann, Joseph Dori, Joseph Dori-Butin, etc. - Played the role of the mysterious character, a wealthy aristocrat in exile.

He rented a luxury villa on the island and organized secular evening, which could meet all the cream of society. With all their potential victims Hori explained that all his money invested in art, and that his friends - Salvador Dali and other famous people. So he getting on Ibiza in the sun without a care, until the scandal broke in the process of Fernand Legros and his heart other realities Lessard, accused the United States that they had sold dozens of fake paintings by contemporary artists, Texas oil magnate Alguru Hartley Meadows.

Sam Hori, genuinely fond of art, had a golden youth in Budapest. At age 18 he decided to study art - first in Munich and then, in the years 1926-1932. In Paris in the studio of Fernand Leger, but received no recognition. At the end of World War II, all the property his family had been selected by the Hungarian Communist authorities, and this esthete, sybaritic homosexual and was forced to find a way to ensure its existence.

Based in Paris, he began to forge a well-known artists - Picasso, Matisse, Modigliani - and sell them as naive and ignorant fans of the beautiful. Gradually he has to establish contacts with galleries around the world. The first time he was burnt when a gallery owner in Los Angeles led him to clean water and threatened to report it to the police.
Frightened by the threat of arrest and imprisonment, Hori stopped their lucrative but dangerous activity. In desperation he even tried to commit suicide, but in 1958, without knowing it, he concluded an alliance with the devil, taking care of Fernand Legros, a 27-year-old dancer pretending to be a curator, a rotating international secular circles.
Apparently, Hori came under the influence of the eccentric character in dark glasses, hung with jewels and wrapped in fur. Legros managed to flatter Hori, assuring him that he is a great artist, and persuaded him to again take up the forgery.

Now we need to find clients. Legros went to the United States. On the border of the U.S. Customs asked him what he is lucky, he replied that he had in his suitcases are copies of paintings by famous artists. Suspicious customs cause of experts who unanimously declare that it is - not copies, but very real originals. Legros pays quite a large fine, but gets a customs declaration, which is written in black and white, that all his paintings - the originals!

Meanwhile, Hori moved to Ibiza, he believes Legros - not without reason - a swindler and crook, but, nevertheless, continues to work at it, revising their forgery in the United States. Legros forced to use the services already mentioned Lessard, as well as other poddelschika - Marture. Both of them provide its products for sale.

And Legros found the perfect victim in the face Algura Hartle Meadows, who bought him for about 40 of forgeries, signed by Modigliani, Derain, Picasso and Dufy. Moreover Legros managed to convince many French experts and assigns artists to give him a certificate of authenticity, not asking questions about the authenticity of the actual paintings, which they showed.

In the end, Meadows persuaded that he was the victim of a swindler, and he sued the Legros, who was arrested after a long investigation, which became press lure. However, it fell Hori and Lessard, and the actors of the art market once again fell into a panic, knowing that hundreds and perhaps thousands of counterfeits are circulating in the United States, a country overflowing with ignorant and rich buyers of works of art. However, the deceived buyers of fakes have been in court numerous - many of them chose not to become a laughingstock.

In 1976, writing his memoirs, for which director Francois Reshenbah put the film and causing admiration for Orson Welles, who considered him "poddelschikom century, Hori committed suicide. In 1979 Legros was sentenced to 2-m-year prison term and this was covered in pre-trial detention, but the inveterate smoker long enjoyed any newfound freedom, nor the generous help of Onassis's daughter - he died of throat cancer in April 1983

Real Lessard, who moved to Morocco, wrote a book, which described the many picturesque scenes. Finally, Mature in 2003, also published his book in which he admitted that he fed Legros fakes.