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Here is a brief summary of the research article De Marchi and Van Migruta (De Marchi et Van Miegroet), published in the book Handbook of the Economics of Art and Culture, Volume 1, edited by Victor A. Ginsburg and David Trosbi, Elsevier, 2006.
How did the art market
Financing of artistic production in Europe until the 15 th century is almost exclusively through the establishment of bilateral relations between the client works (or his representative) and the artist. The contract defines the basic characteristics of the product (for example, its plot and its purpose), as well as reward the artist. Thus, this reward is a cash equivalent of the artist, and it corresponds to the type of the ordered product, the quality of the final product and the reputation of both parties entering into contractual relations.
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The concept of the market, by contrast, implies a relatively large number of buyers and sellers and, respectively, from supply and demand of products, each of which is unique and unrepeatable, but which nevertheless may partially replace each other. Consequently, the epicenter of the exchange of shifts in the direction of the finished product and the price it is determined by matching supply and demand. Speaking about the art market, it is necessary to distinguish between the primary market, where the artwork is sold for the first time, from the secondary rvnkov, where the product is sold. The earliest primary markets in Europe appear in Florence and in Bruges, where the vast majority of the proposals provided by the artists. Secondary markets appear in fifty years after the formation of primary, and the actors they advocate traders sold the property on the occasion vzoda inherited or bankruptcy.
This general scheme is a significant difference depending on the situation in different cities - the rhythm of the markets and the relative value of primary and secondary markets may vary.
Florence and Bruges
The authors take the example of two documented cases, the emergence of markets in Florence, which was a major importatorom works of art, and Bruges, which exported its products.
During the era Vozrozheniya Florence is by far the biggest hotbed of creating works of art. However, the vast majority of works that the city owes his well-deserved fame, was created either by request or as a result of ad contests. Hence, the fierce competition between the masters of art deals exclusively with the quality of their products. Florentine painters did not seek to develop ways to reduce the cost of production due to loss of its originality, with one exception: Neri di Bichchi, a workshop which produced a massive quantity of products that simulates a work created to order, occasionally, in the case of an urgent zakza a very large number products, manufacture them even instructed subcontractors. Modest margin and, consequently, lower prices allowed di Bichchi find a book among the artisans and the patrician families of the second rank, making it back to 1480 Goduka richest artist in Florence. In parallel, there is guild capture Sellers dress code, has specialized in the elimination of inheritance, resale market pictures.
The situation in Bruges is radically different from Florence. At that time, the rich Florentine merchants imported Flemish paintings, the constant presence in Bruges, the main commercial city of Western Europe - and on the occasion of the May Fair is prosutstvie have increased many times over - traders from all countries, developed an administrative infrastructure and stable social relations in the city gave the artists an opportunity to make themselves rich clientele. Numerous members of the guild artists attests to this great demand: despite the fact that data are not fully comparable, it is possible utverdlat that the number of new apprentices in the guild in Bruges is approaching the total number of artists who worked in the studio Neri di Bichchi.
On the other hand, strict organization of the guilds in Bruges was the reason for the distribution of artists between the two different guilds depending on uporteblyaemyh or technologies (oil on wood, pigments, related to the linseed oil; miniatures in manuscripts, Van Eyck, for example, was an apprentice in the latter category ). This situation has led to fierce competition between artists, which encouraged them to lower the price, and quickly assimilate new technological methods, fashionable formats and subjects. This continuous improvement of artistic meodov made it possible to supply the market with works of art in a style which is continuously updated, also caused a steady increase in demand. The main consequence of this competition was the invention of all three categories of art items that could be implemented faster and in greater quantities by repeated use of templates (eg, cartons can be used for the manufacture of tapestry, and as models for writing on fabric). The cost of such products was quite different from the price more closely izgotovleniiyh products, but the clientele was often common: wealthy buyers to purchase these cheap products to beat the less prestigious rooms of their homes.
When comparing the data originating their various cities, it becomes clear that in Flanders there were many more people who have had works of art, and because of the wealth of the country's population, and because much nihzkih prices.
distribution network
In the 16 th century Antwerp, entrance to which was easier than to Bruges, Bruges took the disgrace when Maximilian I, to oust him and become a major center of European trade. Antwerp guild were less stringent than in Bruges, they can move from one guild to another, cooperation between artists, use different technologies and most importantly, the sale of works by artists outside the shops by traders who are not artists. Moreover, with the 1445-th year, the city took part, the costs of organizing markets for permanent works of art, first in kluatrah, and then in a specially built for this room (1540 first year), thus allowing a 1580-m by one of ambitious merchants to store on site not less than 610 works of art. Extrapolating on the basis of the inventory of one of the dealers, we can conclude that this constant market paintings each year, approximately 17700 new works. Nearby cities played a crucial role in the delivery of the Antwerp market products of lower quality.
Subsequently, the late 16 th century, the war with Spain, and then the religious wars led to a decrease in the role of Antwerp. However, the artistic production fell much less than other areas of the economy - artistic products were exported to new markets. These markets exist in the south (Paris, Lille) and in the north (The Hague, Haarlem), and the script remained the same: at the beginning - the negative reatstsiya local guild against foreign competition, then the sale of works created in Antwerp, local merchants, as For example, Edme-Francois Zhersen.
Considering the specific relationship between various cities of the Netherlands, the authors conclude that a huge number of products (from 4.7 to 5.3 millionoy works between 1580 m and 1680 m over the years), partly due to the construction of canals connecting the main cities. The network has facilitated the specialization of artists who used to their advantage features of each of the local guilds.
Lastly, the existence of a regular trade between Antwerp and America, despite the risk and duration of sea routes, pokazyvvaet that trade in painting took its place in the international trade of that era. Merchants - participants in the distribution network had to consider the tastes of his Spanish clients to tailor products to the Spanish Flemish demand, thus playing the role of cultural mediator, who previously played metseny, with their activities of which affect a significant number of works, rather than elements of a private collection.
for sale painting: the relationship between artists and dealers
Price originality
Painters of Florence in the 15 th century or Bruges in 14 th century were part of the artisan class, and they are paid based on their status. In the 17 th century in Antwerp, Jan Bregel II (grandson of Peter Bregel Old and artist of the second rank) could afford to ask for double the price of your original copy of his picture made with his own hand. The explanation for such a requirement, which is unthinkable to imagine in earlier times, lies in its relationship with the trafficker Van Immerselem, who thought the originals more valuable than a copy, as they were intended mainly to show the customer who ordered a copy of pleasing his work. Thus, the integration of beautiful products in the distribution network of art has led to an increase in value compared to the original system order in which the copies were very numerous, and the concept of an original work could be discussed between the customer and the artist, and the artist must be adapted to all requirements of their customer.
paintings for sale in Venice and Rome
Venice
Wishing haschitit scenic quality of products against the dangers of clandestine workshops, due to which part of the market would have been lost to the members of the local guild of artists, during the 16 th century Venice adhered strictly to prohibit the sale of works of art in the local market traders who are not artists, probably not artists, nor the local authorities had not noticed two negative consequences arising from the ban. On the one hand, artists were supposed to divide his time between the two types of activity - the creation of images of art (which they did very well) and sell these images of art (that they could do much worse). On the other hand, the ban favored the external market, as well as artists who do not want to waste time searching the Venetian customers, gave his paintings to merchants, so that they have sold them outside of Venice.
In the 16th and 17th centuries, domestic demand for venetsiansuyu painting all the time increasing. So the artists were willing to give traders to sell their products for export at relatively reasonable prices, since such a demand, they could sell the remaining pictures on the local market. The weakening of demand in the late 17 th century led to what the artists were in a situation of ever-increasing dependence on dealers - exporters. The most famous artists practically not affected by this phenomenon, but it greatly affected the quality of the product other artists, in particular, because the Venetian merchants, in contrast to the Netherlands belonged to the painting, like an ordinary product of superior quality, rather than as capital that is able to serve as a model for the production of numerous derivative products.
Rome
The situation that prevailed in Rome, Florence, was almost the reverse: as in Florence, there were the restrictions but the weakness of local authorities are not allowed to achieve compliance. This led to the fact that Rome became a place of very active art market, which is consumed as the papal court, and countless pilgrims visiting the eternal city. Unlike Venice, a collection compiled by buying products from vendors or on the street, thus weakening the role of the order. In this regard, the authors draw attention to Pelegrin Perry (1624 - 1699). This merchant paintings differs not only in its specialization (he - the first dealer to deal exclusively with painting), but their contribution to the compilation of large collections by selling or providing a loan of large blocks of art.
paintings for sale: auction
In the 17th century trading is not the most common type of sale. Traders use this type of sales for the elimination of unsold paintings before closing the fairs in order to reduce transport costs and customs duties on the way back. In general, auctions, which are widely used in the Netherlands in the liquidation of the assets remaining in the inheritance, there were surrounded by an atmosphere of suspicion.
In this context, the Lille court's decision since the second half of the 17 th century to allow the sale by auction of unsold paintings from Antwerp at the end of the annual fair should not be understood as a concession to the rich part of the urban population, not satisfaction with the quality of local products, but primarily as establishing rules for the conduct of fair trading. The fair became a place of display and search for works of art, which are then bought at auction, and it indicates that both sellers and buyers were satisfied with the way the acquisition of art objects. This experience is especially interesting that at the same time in London, the codification of trades reveals numerous problems functioning, in particular, the fact that existing regulations have served only the interests of the organizers of the auction.
Bidding Zhersena
In Paris in the 17th century still in force a rule that art dealers recognized members of the guild of artists, is respected by even stricter than in Venice. However, the exceptions permitted to traffickers haberdasher, opened the way to the generation of merchants, among which stands the figure of Edme-Francois Zhersena (1694 - 1750).
Dealer curious at the beginning of his career, Zhersen introduced in Paris public auction without the possibility of private transactions. Perfectly familiar with the method of tendering in the Netherlands, and knowing only the Flemish paintings, he became the first to anticipate the bidding a few days, during which works of art were on display the public, first began to publish catalogs of luxury trades, which gave some assessment pieces, and turned in such a way trades in secular entertainment. Now engaged in selling works of art are no longer artists and connoisseurs: concentrating trade in cultural objects in their hands, Zhersen contributed to the dissemination of information and dialogue between potential buyers and the organizers of trading, advancing to the forefront, instead of the usual while criteria related to the plot or personality artist, aesthetic pleasure derived from contemplation of the picture, rather than issues related to the plot or personality of the artist, and thus greatly increased the number of collectors of art. In fact, not be pleased role of a simple trader, he adhered to the elements of promotion of art education and tastes of buyers, a function that has become important in the modern sense of the profession gallerist.
Illustrations: 1. David Teniers the Younger. Gallery of Archduke Leopold Wilhelm in Brussels. 2nd third of the 17 th century
2. Antoine Watteau. Shop Zhersena. 1720
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. The contemporary art market, is not old according to Hughes, who states that, "It was created by the great liquidity of late-twentieth ¬ century wealth ... and has been, since 1960 one of the wonders of cultural engineering. The big project of the art market over the last 25 years has been to convince everyone that works of art, although they don't bear interest, offer such dramatic and consistent capital gains along with the intangible pleasures of ownership, that they are worth investing large sums of money in "(Hughes, 1990, p.396).
A confidence in art as a material and valuable object was created internationally. The mechanism of the creation of this confidence started, in Hughes' opinion, with "... a curious enterprise called the Times-Sotheby Art Indexes" (Hughes, 1990, p.396), which showed in an extremely generalized way growth of everything sold by Sotheby's was going up in price by 25 to 200 percent annually.
The media later supported this often unreliable and gap-filled information with a financial page in The Times, objectifying in the long run the idea of investing in art, making it realistic. The information on highest sales is readily shown, but it is hard to find out anything about unsuccessful sales, or paintings that were passed in.
Eschio odin vzgliad na formirovanie sovremennogo rynka. K sozaleniiu u menia net russkogo v computere, a to by pereviol.
Kniga nazyvaetsia "Nothing if not critical ', avtor Robert Hughes.
On avstraliets a seichas ziviot v NY USA.
Napisal neskol'ko tolkovyh knig po istorii iskusstv.
Nedavno pokazyvali ego fil'm 'Goya'. Ne sovsem uveren, slishkom mnogo otozdestleniia s geroem i samoliubovaniia.
No kak my vse znaem istoriia iskusstv - iskusstvo samo po-sebe.
02.07.2008, 12:18
History of art market
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