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По умолчанию Examination of works of Russian and foreign painting and graphics XVI-XX centuries.

On methods of studying the works of art and the classification of secondary works in the department of scientific expertise
AR Kiseleva (Senior Research Officer GRC them. Igor Grabar).

The basis of the expert is to conduct a comprehensive iconographic, stylistic, technical and technological expertise of Russian and foreign painting and graphics XVI-XX centuries.
During the existence of his co-workers developed a method for comprehensive analysis of the works, collections of standards, as the replenishment of the experts whose conclusions about individual handwriting traits of artists and is constantly refined technological features that are characteristic for individual schools of painting from different periods.
To date, assembled an extensive bank of reference data, including the collection:
- Samples of canvas and paper;
- Macro texture painting;
- Microsamples of soil and layers of paint;
- Documentary photographs in the visible, infrared, ultraviolet and X-ray spectra of radiation;
- Descriptions of the results of iconographic and stylistic analysis, as well as visual and microscopic observations of technical and technological characteristics of products.
These data form the basis for a comparative analysis of works of art.
The main tasks of scientific expertise include:
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- The question of authorship (the establishment, confirmation or rejection of authorship);
- Dating works;
- Definition of school of painting;
- Determination of the iconography of the work;
- The question of the originality or derivative works;
- Delineation of the type of the secondary (copy, author or co-authorship repetition, belonging to the workshop, a circle, school, or follower of the wizard, imitation, forgery, pastiche);
- Determination of the state of preservation;
- Determination of the artistic level of the work.
Iconographic (genre-plot) and stylistic (composition, of color, black and white, linear-plastic and so forth) analysis suggests the authorship, creation time, a school of painting.
For the final tasks required technological expertise arguments.

The main technical and technological research include:

 I. Microscopic analysis.
II. Research in the UV radiation.
III. Research in IR radiation.
IV. X-ray analysis.
V. Analysis of texture painting surface.
VI. Analysis of the chemical composition of the painting materials.

Features of these types of studies: I. Minute analysis

One of the most informative examination of works of art you can:
- More accurately determine the condition of the product;
- To conclude that the method of application signature;
-Assume the approximate dating of the work on the picturesque materials, technical characteristics causing soil and the construction of the paint layer;
- Set the technological features of originality, or derivative works;
- To address the question of authorship to correlate the results of microscopic research work with the bank of reference data on the technology of paintings of the artist intended.

1. Microscopic analysis allows us to identify as precisely as possible the degree of restoration interventions, in particular, recognize the old toning and records that are not detected in the UV rays because of the varnish layers. Only in the study under a microscope you can see the restoration of toning and records differ from the author of the layer on the composition of pigments, degree of transparency and the relief of occurrence, but it almost caught up with him in the transparency are close in color and sometimes have already shared with him craquelure. Their X-ray density often does not provide the contrast, therefore, to identify them on the radiograph as difficult as in the UV rays.

2. Investigation under the microscope to determine method of fixing the signature, since only under high magnification one can see subtle nuances of its occurrence and determine whether it was written simultaneously with a colorful layer or made later on craquelure, dirt, abrasions, restoration.
Even without the author's signature can be so long, partially acquire craquelure, shared with the author's paintings.
The method for applying the signature is most important, as the mark of an autograph can skillfully faked. The task of identifying the signature is greatly simplified if it is made: a) raw, b) rare pigment layer, c) the same paste, which paint a picture.

3. Microscopic examination allows the estimated date the picture on the basis of an analysis of its structure, pigment composition and methods of construction painting. Knowledge of the canvas, soil, composition, kneading and grinding of pigments, as well as the range of application-specific painting materials and techniques for building layers of paint give the opportunity to put the supposed dating. The most objective conclusion about the time of creation of the work being done in conjunction with the results of iconographic, stylistic and chemical analysis.
4. Microscopic analysis helps to establish a secondary works, technological feature which in some cases may be a lack podmalevka.
5. In addressing the question of authorship is taken into account the full range of research, in which microscopic analysis plays an important role. The study of soil composition and ratio of pigments, the sequencing of construction of fine detail (for example, the sequence of completion of elements of the person, clothing or accessories, etc.), especially the construction of layers of paint gives an idea of painting materials and techniques for a specific author. A detailed engineering study patterns enables comparison with the general features of time given to the characteristics peculiar to the individual style of the artist.

It is very important that the microscopic analysis is the express method of technological expertise, which results in conjunction with the iconographic and stylistic analysis can either directly address the question of the establishment, school of painting and original paintings, or, in dealing with the authorship and the difficulty in dating, further outlook studies.

II. Research in the UV radiation

UV rays, acting on now, let us see any integral glow paint, paint layer and ground, or each component in the open areas of ground and paint layer, which enables:
- Get some information about the state of conservation works (loss and restoration intervention);
- Identify extinguished inscriptions and signatures made gallic ink, mercury and iron-containing pigment;
- Identify some dating pigments (eg zinc oxide);
- Obtain information about the depth of the signature (under the varnish, lacquer between layers, on top of paint, on the loss, the restoration).

The results verified the results of microscope analysis, as defined in the UV rays of the pigments - the results of the analysis of the chemical composition of samples.
The main qualitative characteristics of the visible luminescence under UV irradiation are brightness, color, density, uniformity of the emission surface of the painting, as well as the presence of dark areas, indicating the existing restoration, pollution or the lack of lacquer film.

If necessary photo-painting under ultraviolet irradiation.

III. Research in the IR radiation

The study is carried out using an electron-optical converter, transforming the IR image in the visible, allowing:
- See the underlying painting (compositional changes or correspondence);
- Recognize a colorful layer of preparatory drawing and large-scale grid, if available;
- To reveal the inscription and signature, caused by carbon materials;
- Identify extinguished inscriptions and signatures;
- To determine surface and deep restoration intervention.
For the infrared rays are transparent varnish, contamination, thin layers of painting. In the heat rays revealed a well-soot, charcoal, pencil, ink and other carbonaceous materials.
The most important information can be obtained in the study of the preparatory drawing, which is a hidden technological copyright sign. Drawing free, with corrections and compositional changes, as a rule, evidence of originality of work. Figure hard, with the depiction of light and shade boundaries and contours most points in the secondary pattern. In some cases the presence of a large-scale grid can also point to the secondary works.
Identifying individual characteristics of a specific pattern masters and their comparison with the reference number - one of the essential tools expertise in dealing with the issue of inventorship.

IV. X-ray analysis
The study enables:

- To determine the condition of the product (the loss, restoration intervention, signs of re-based);
- See the underlying image, as well as edits and changes the composition;
- Identify some beautiful material;
- See the individual copyright application methods of soil (in some cases), construction of the paint layer and the nature of the stroke in the modeling of forms.

In the analysis of X-ray principal qualitative characteristics are readable image, the degree of contrast of black and white building, detection and shape of individual strokes.
Readability image due to the peculiarities of the basis, the composition of the soil and colorful pastes, thickness and quantity of ground and paint layers, the modeling techniques and forms of the type used brushes, as well as the presence of restoration interventions. X-ray analysis plays an important role in deciding the time of creating the painting, school of painting and works of authorship.

V. Analysis of texture painting surface

Research carried out visually by caring, under the microscope and allows you to:
- Obtain information about the state of preservation;
- Identify the individual handwriting characteristics of the author and general symptoms characteristic of the artists a certain time and schools;
- To see the techniques and the sequence of building painted surface;
- Obtain information about art materials and techniques of painting.

Macro texture painting and radiographs provide important information about individual handwriting techniques the author.
Important quality parameters in the analysis of surface texture are the basis of the ratio, soil, paint and varnish layers, the techniques of building painting, body paint, the configuration of the stroke, type craquelure, features art materials, etc.

Interpreting the results of the analysis fakturopostroeniya helps resolve the question of authorship, authenticity, since the establishment of a work, school of painting.

VI. Analysis of the chemical composition of the painting materials

Results of chemical analysis:
- Have information on the creation of the work;
- Contain some information about individual techniques of the artist and used by a scenic materials.
Data obtained in the process of integrated assessment, compared with the reference material, and then to draw definitive conclusions about authorship, creation time, the school of painting, etc.
One important issue is the examination of the classification of works. They may be original or secondary, which in turn are subdivided into several types. Certain types of secondary works contain similar stylistic and technological features, and therefore their distinction in some cases is a rather difficult task. This scheme classifies the secondary works and indicates the types (arrows in opposite directions), representing some difficulty in distinguishing. (This scheme is drawn from studies of sufficiently large number of secondary Dutch and Flemish paintings XVII-XIX centuries.)

Secondary works are divided into copies, author repetition, repetition and imitation, joint authorship, which include simulation, styling, studio work, school, circle, a follower of the wizard and forgery. Fakes with a signature, are unintentional and intentional, and divided into three types (see diagram): a) style, b) stylistic and technological (the XIX century), c) stylistic and technological imitation signs of aging and /or restoration (approximately from mid-XIX century). The picture that has no signature, can be attributed to fraud in the case when it was created, along with the style has been imitated by technology known master and /or simulate symptoms of aging and restoration. Types of fraud, lining up at the time of creation, the differences are related to the level of knowledge in the history of painting techniques.

Despite the fact that accurate and complete definition of the types of secondary works to be difficult, since even the original works may be mimicking nature, we formulate some of them.

Imitation. (The most typical of the XVIII century) painting, written in imitation of some models, incorporating elements of copying and compiling, interpreted in accordance with the aesthetics of his time, created the technology of his time and usually has a signature.

Pastiche. (The most typical of the XIX century) works made by the technology of its time, usually without the use of elements of the copy or compilation, is a retrospective embodiment of the theme (motive), taken from the past and transformed into a new image-plastic model, and in some cases imitation of the old masters.

Unintentional forgery

Originally unsigned picture by any artist, for similar iconographic and stylistic characteristics with time to be a painting of another (usually larger), the artist and in some cases, signed his name.
This type of paintings can be classified as an original work, and imitation, style, and a copy of a work shop, school, circle, a follower of a master. To gain a picture of their true status false signature should be removed.

Intentional falsification

The painting, created in the style of the author counterfeited, often with an imitation of painting technology and the use of similar composition ink paste, sometimes with imitation signs of aging and restoration, as a rule, which has a signature, a modern pigment layer.

Copies of the author and repetition, in our opinion, in special formulations do not need.
Differentiation patterns on the basis of originality and the secondary and the definition of type is secondary, as all the other tasks of scientific expertise, are solved with the help of technical and technological, historical and art history studies, which represent a reliable research method.

-------------------------------------------------- ---
Anna Kiseleva Rudolfovna -
Head of Department examination, leading researcher GRC them. Igor Grabar. Specializes in the XVIII century Russian and Western European paintings.
Member of Russian and international conferences (the Louvre, Leiden University).
He has over twenty publications on assessment, attribution and technological research methods.
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