a) triangle Paris - London - Amsterdam
Trading art emerged with trafficking in relics, and, somewhat later, antiquities, in the XVI century is beginning to follow the movement of works of art, because prior to this period are not moving product, and the artists themselves: well-known painters are usually in the service of princes, and their works created by the order and were an integral part of the decoration of palaces and churches, for which they were created.
Its products are market art found primarily in Italy - because that is where excavations where to find the works of ancient art, there was the highest concentration of artists come there from all over the world. In Italy, were drawn up the first major meeting. Accordingly, German and French, a little later - English aristocrats sent their emissaries go for purchasing works of art.
But the Italian market was similar to the political structure of Italy, that is fragmented and did not have the readability of this single market. Despite the fact that the first sporadic public sales have been made at the beginning of XVI century in Venice, the systematic organization of them occurred in the XVII century in Holland and then in London.
Even if historically the Art Market was born somewhere between Holland, England and France, with the end of XVIII century Paris took the lead. It was in France with large vendors of art, which brought the market of art from its prehistory, and thus contributed to the development of art history-Zhersen, Remy, Zhulenev du Payet, and especially Le Bren. They can and should call the experts. This is how the situation Krzysztof Pomian:
«In the sixties the XVIII century, thanks to the names of collectors, whose collection was sold at this time, thanks to their extremely high social rank, and often their incredible wealth and legend surrounding them with living works of art they collected, some sale has become a phenomenon of secular life, which have long been discussed in correspondence and in the newspapers. Rumors of these sales immediately went outside of Paris and became the property of the whole of Europe, as in the second half of XVIII century, Paris was at the center of European art market. In Paris, sold items, bought in Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands; buyers from across Europe gathered there in search of works of art for your collection ... This lasted until the revolution put an end to the domination of the French art market ».
To summarize: the market has been an international art. The painting, bought in Amsterdam, could be a few months later offered for sale in Paris, often with an indication of origin. At this time, set all the characteristics of this market, its complex rules, and organized an international network of dealers.
At this time, the merchant, auctioneer not only acted as a fiduciary of the seller's product or its acquirer, often he purchased items for their auctions and for myself that did not stop these traffickers, and to enter into private transactions as sales and procurement. Even the most active traders, auctioneers arranged no more than 5 or 7 trades per year, each of which lasted several days.
In the second half of XVIII century, began to appear detailed catalogs, which in addition to lavish epithets, characteristic of the era, began to give specific information about objects, their size, condition and origin.
Thus, at the end of the century there were professionals of the art market that do not have arts education (as in the previous century, almost all the art dealers were artists, and vice versa) and that used in his work a commercial talent and his knowledge of art. This trend towards professionalisation was accompanied by an increasingly close contacts between traders and historians of art, between the market and museums.
b) The dominating position of London in the XIX century: a political choice, the importance of the economy
Since the beginning of the French Revolution, the center of European art market was London. It was sold in London meeting immigrants - primarily, a collection of the Prince of Orleans. This sale, along with the sale of collection of Charles I, held a half centuries earlier, is an important milestone in the development of British tastes.
But the consequences of the French Revolution are not limited to the fact that the center of the art market has shifted from Paris to London, she also stepped up the mixing and interpenetration of styles of art: works that were stored for centuries in their cases and covers, loaded into carts or in the holds of ships - they were objects svozimye for the Central Museum of Napoleon, the things stolen by soldiers, and works that have been forced to sell their owners, devastated by Napoleon's crippling taxes.
«The fact that the French aristocracy - writes the historian Francis Heskell -
can decorate their homes in the same style as the Roman, Venetian or genuetsskie patrician palaces where they were able to visit during military operations still some ten years ago would have seemed incredible. Now it has become possible and quite easy - just to have enough money. And as we know, appetite comes with eating, so the crowd of emissaries, agents, torgotvtsev, unsuccessful artists and adventurers of all persuasions attacked in Italy, like vultures to take advantage of the situation of the Italian aristocracy, forced to pay fines monstrous army of the victorious enemy. For over ten years you would have thought that the whole of Europe, beginning with the princes, dukes and generals, and ending with the monks and simply vulgar thieves, took part in a unified and comprehensive campaign to speculation of art. King George III remarked ironically that all the nobles took to trade pictures.
In London brought a masterpiece of a masterpiece, and they seemed inexhaustible flow, and people are accustomed to this new situation. In the midst of the blockade traders, including the French, came to England with his run-off, and sell them back to the continent that they update ».
Thus, during the Napoleonic wars in France have developed into large collections: collections of Napoleon's uncle, Cardinal Fesha, Napoleon's brother Lucien, Marshal Su in Spain were the most famous. In Nantes and Lille were skompanovany more modest collection - Kako, Vicario. In general,
can be argued that the French Revolution has enriched British art dealers and collectors. While the French were selected (and after Waterloo, they had nearly all returned) and robbed, almost always without any selection, the British bought what was then the wealth of English castles, and even later - the pride of American museums.
But even if England are always going to benefit during periods of instability of French politics, the fundamental reason for the development of the art market in Britain was its ekonomicheskits growth, which contributed to intense domestic demand for art.
) the emergence of merchant-opener
A prototype of an art dealer - a visionary and first appeared in France, it was Le Bren, the husband of artist Vigee, who discovered, among other Vermeer. Several decades later, his initiatives will be pursued by other brilliant figures - Durand-Ruelle, Vollarom and Kanvaylerom, which can serve as an example Marchand, founding its activities on promoting the new aesthetics.
(1) innovative entrepreneurs
As noted by Ms. Remond Moulin, now an art dealer behaves as an entrepreneur in the sense in which uses the term economist Joseph Schumpeter.
In his analysis of the political economy goal is not only to produce at the lowest cost, depending on the technological development at any given time, or as good as possible to meet the demands of consumers according to their tastes. This is the introduction of new technologies, accusatory products of tomorrow, and consequently, that the employer must enter into a relationship of radical competition, which restruktriruet the whole apparatus of production. This process of creative destruction that characterizes capitalism, according to Joseph Schumpeter, who is present on the art market. The role of art dealer to a greater extent is the formation of tastes of customers and implanting the new dominant aesthetics, rather than in the prime broker.
Such a change in the functioning of the art market was preceded by the beginning of XIX century "silent revolution": freed from the tutelage of Academy, timeless craft foremen colleges, the artist got the freedom to respond to market demands.
At the beginning of this market to function within the aesthetic standards set by either public agencies or the Academy. State arrogated to itself the function of the development of aesthetic standards, which have the force of law. But, just as in the ultra world currency's value is not determined by the official exchange rate, and the agreement between the parties to the exchange privilege of the State to determine the aesthetic value was abolished by a group of artists who, through the art market and traders carried this aesthetic revolution.
This change in the art market and, moreover, the foundation of aesthetic values, almost everyone is obliged to Paul Durand-Ruel. He supported the Impressionists in spite of widespread hostility, he bought an enormous amount of work they promoted artists. Playing at the same time the role of banker and an advertising agent, he was ruined and he died almost in poverty, but in its vaults was about 800 Renoir and Degas 600.
His bold policy led him to use all RESOURCES advertising and to cooperate actively with the critics. Since 1883, he organized a series of solo exhibitions in many European capitals, and then in 1988 opened a gallery at the 5 th Avenue in New York - The importance of this event can not be overemphasized, since it appeared in America the first major art collectors, in particular, Mrs. Potter-Palmer and Mr. and Mrs. HO Hevmeyer.
(2) A continuous process of creating a new aesthetic values
This strategy, which consists in the perpetuation of a new aesthetic, was accepted and gave birth to
a process of continuous renewal of artistic movements, «continuous coup" in the field of contemporary art, and in parallel - a process of opening unknown old masters.
In this market, which Ms. Moulin calls the "art museum", the offer is limited, moreover, it is reduced by the museum's purchases, so traders have to look past masters, the legacy of which remains unknown or has been underestimated: it is possible to compile a long list of such " discoveries "- from" small masters "to the official artists 2 nd half of XIX century, but were open and very major artists such as Georges de La Tour, or, later, the artists of Mannerism.
(3) Market and museums: the relationship of mutual dependence
Art dealers got their recognition gosudarstvvennymi structures as the discoverers of aesthetic values and used this recognition to affirm the infallibility of their choice of trends and artists. This led to a complex relationship between the market and museums, especially in the field of contemporary art.
In his book on the art trade Krzysztof Pomian wrote:
«Art Market depends on the museum, as it depends on the Mint, which strikes a coin, serve it for transactions, and then adds:" The National Gallery, London owes its existence to the decree of Parliament, which decided to buy the collection for the nation Julius Angershtayna, which is renowned for having contained a masterpiece ... However, symptomatic that the majority of people promoting this idea, were the actors of the art market. In this sense, it can be argued that the National Gallery - creation of the market. Fifty years later the story repeated itself when creating the Metropolitan Museum in New York ».
In the field of contemporary art functional
communication market with museums is even more evident, since by definition, Ms. Moulin "we are in the artistic sector, devoid of normative aesthetics. The following analysis podcherpnut us from her book.
American art dealer Castelli was a typical representative of the entrepreneur and innovator in the postwar period. Not being the first trader who worked with Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, Frank Stella, and so on, he praised these artists in the artistic currents of pop art, minimalism and conceptual art.
«His love for the constant renewal in harmony with the aesthetics of continuous change inherent in these trends. To promote their artists, he used the arguments from the history of arts, operating with names such as Cezanne, Matisse, Picasso, his trading strategy was based on that ».
In a sense, modern galleries are inspired strategy of Leo Castelli.
«To create a demand for any new movement, uses a mixture of techniques of commercial marketing and advertising techniques to spread cultural products. The probability of success of a trader in his organization punctual operation to promote the artist depends on financial support available to it, and from its reputation in terms of culture, that is, from its proven ability to achieve in the past, the recognition of new products of the modernist faction of the artistic establishment ".
The success of the strategy to promote the artist or art movement involves "international readability", which is required for official recognition and praise.
Thus, the logic of the art market, regardless of recent trends related to the development of public sales, has not lost its international optics.
2. The new situation in the world
At present, speaking about the art market, notably mention public auction, and it accurately reflects the
change the balance of power between dealers and auctioneers, which occurred in the context of mondializatsii and globalization of the art market.
a) The irresistible ascent of the Anglo-Saxon auction houses
The main reason for the conquest of the market's two largest British auction houses were fundamental changes in the organization of public tenders. Underlying these changes was the same man named Peter Cecil Wilson, a story which deserves to tell it here, because even if it refers only to the house Sotheby's, it shows a very good reason for the domination anglisaksonskih auction houses in the global art market.
Peter Cecil Wilson, the son of impoverished English aristocrat, born in 1913, he first realized that to compete with large ones can be art, organizing poublichnye bidding.
In 1956, on the occasion of the sale of Poussin's painting "The Adoration of the Shepherds", he had the idea to bring sellers
favorable terms: a guarantee price, reasonable fees paid by the seller. Despite the failure of the first operation - trades have not risen to guarantee the price, and Sotheby's had to pay the difference - an advertising objective was reached:
auction house, testified that he has to offer and provide individuals a price exceeding supply dealers.
He also promoted the development of
contacts with the auction house, art historians, who were invited as experts: post-war German immigrant Hans Gronau has proven competence and due care professionals whose work was based on documentary research Tancred Boreniusa. This aspect of the British auction houses have long provided them a decisive advantage over the French commissioners, assessors, who only recently begun to cooperate with experts of equal quality.
Another radical change in commercial practices, Sotheby's, apparently, owes its existence to the occasion: the executor of an American collector of Impressionist paintings brought in contract with Sotheby's obyaschatelnoe condition that the auction go back to using
specialized agency for PR and advertising. Trades were a great success, and the audience was so much that he first had to install closed circuit television for people who are not able to enter the auction hall.
At the next major auction of paintings by Impressionists, in 1958, this system has been improved: it was agreed that the commission, the minimum to reach the reserve price will increase after reaching a certain threshold. And at these auctions the seller insisted on the allocation of
a substantial budget for marketing.
Bidding took place in the evening, that too was a novelty for London, where the audience was supposed to come in evening gowns.
Bidding became a secular event, where it was important to see others and be taken away.
Another brilliant move by Peter Wilson was the opening of the auction house Sotheby's in the United States. The history of this discovery is very interesting:
In New York, the company was Park-Bernet, which failed to take advantage of the presence in a significant number of collectors for its development. In addition to the flawed examination and an inability to develop a PR, this company had two other drawbacks: she took the high commissions - up to 25%- and is not practiced by the reserve price, because in the eyes of the American concept of the secret minimum price bordered on fraud. The consequence of this policy was that
«thanks to the policy reserve prices, Sotheby's vAnglii used in the late 50-ies and for the auction house, and to a lesser extent, for Christie's has become profitable to send pictures of the American proishozhzhdeniya to England to sell their where American customers specifically required to come to London » - the situation in the highest degree absurd!
But despite the suicide of the president of the American auction firms and large financial difficulties, its shareholders were determined to preserve its independence, as Robert Lacey describes in his book on the history of Sotheby's:
«Park-Bernet not want to be swallowed up by the British, the bandit behavior which in the U.S. market has caused so much evil ». However, in 1964, these shareholders had to give:
«the entire U.S. press has put on the front page article about the invasion of the British, with their considerable financial resources, and hope the company Park-Bernet to find a friendly investor did not materialize ... owners of 78%of shares sold to Sotheby's for a total of 1.525 mg U.S. ».
The price was not particularly high. I wonder, did the French commissioners, appraisers, Interested parties had surgery and tried to buy the company Park-Bernet mediated banker Andre Meyer, sufficient funds to implement this deal? Some believe that they missed an opportunity to adapt to a new form of art market, other, more skeptical, notice that for the success of this operation was not enough to have the means, we had yet to have a local network, as well as staff, speaking in English .. .
In the early 70's. came another innovation, responsible for customer inquiries:
published in catalogs preliminary estimates. Internships were organized to allow both to shape future customers, and facilitate the search for qualified and possess the desired social contacts of staff.
His decision to apply the policy of
the absolute confidentiality of information Sotheby's is also required to Peter Wilson:
«According to Wilson, this auction house was finktsionirovat as the Swiss bank, that is to find a solution to all problems of their clients. The interests of the client were to him the most, and if the client had to help get around some laws do not suit him or help him evade taxes, this assistance was the responsibility of Sotheby's ... London predstvalyal a center bleaching money. The ancient and venerable firm Sotheby's prdstavlyala an ideal cover for the buyers. Without a doubt, the willingness of Peter Wilson's help in eksportatsii works of art was one of the important reasons for the staggering success of Sotheby's in the 60-ies ».
However, we must point out that the above practice was not the rule and the exception, after the Sotheby's caught in an illegal export from Italy of the Venetian school of the XVIII century, the British auction houses have redoubled their precautions. At the same time, this practice is a good example of British pragmatism.
As a conclusion it should be noted that although all our arguments about the reasons for the success of the British auction houses relate primarily to Sotheby's, the other auction houses in the speed picked up carried out by Wilson commercial innovations.
We emphasize now
the structural superiority of the English-speaking operators of the art market - the existence of duopoly (Sotheby's /Christie's) at the usual time created a climate of increased competition, but in moments of crisis, these two houses were combined promotional efforts to find common solutions.
Between 1933 and 1938 on several occasions discussed the draft merger of Sotheby's and Christie's, but without success.
They remained independent, and this fierce competition undoubtedly contributed to their dominance in the world of art.
b) End of an era of major art dealers and the beginning of the board of shareholders »
In principle, public auctions are just one part of the art market, along with traditional trade, which in turn consists of many agents - from consultants to traders working in the gallery or without it. But this segment of the market has taken a leading position as compared to the situation before the Second World War, the influence of traditional traders decreased.
Its leading position auction houses have taken over the past fifty years.
(1) Reduction of the field of traditional traders
Before World War II sell the most significant works of art in the name of art dealers.
The world is ruled by art dealers - Dyuvin, Knedler, Vildenshtayn, recourse to which was indispensable for compiling a collection worthy of the name. Thus, in 1929 Dyuvin paid for the collection of masterpieces of the Renaissance Robert Benson 620000 pounds, or roughly the annual turnover of the firm Sotheby's for the same year.
For a long time merchants were the kings of the market. Their artistic flair, and their commercial talent, the ability to engage the best art historians - in particular, one of the most famous, Bernard Berenson (1865-1959) - Finally, the privacy they afford all this made them binding on the suppliers of major collectors. In his history of Sotheby's Robert Lacey describes the situation thus:
«confidentiality was an important aspect of the merchant. Rich people posleschali its reservists to see the real treasures, and one could not imagine that they are sold, the owners of these treasures were reluctant to become aware of the fact that they are forced to sell them. The dealer knew where to find a quite definite masterpiece, he knew and whom to offer it. To services of auction houses, he resorted mainly to get rid of their "mistakes» .
From this point of view, the sentence of John Welch, director of the Getty Museum, made in 1989, shortly before the collapse of the market, at the colloquium, the museum staff, identifies changes in the situation:
«The balance of forces has changed: now auction houses dominate, whereas 20 years ago, most of the most significant works of art owned by art dealers or have in their possession ». He further pointed out that currently are set for auction is a work of the highest quality, which means that traders need to have greater financial means:
«the increasingly high cost of acquiring them requires traders increasingly large investments, which means that they need to grow big and to join associations, which would allow them to reduce risks, and that the role of financiers have a growing ».
But the main paradox underlined by John Welch - is that
«often at auctions art dealers in the auction are traded against their potential customers» . The example the director of the Getty Museum, shows the new relations arising from the conduct of the collectors in turn altered by the strategies of major Anglo-Saxon auction houses:
«Take a collector, let's call it" Mrs. "Hevemane» (Haveamanet - y I have a Manet) - is the name resembles the name of a married couple Hevmeyer, which are among the largest donators Metropolitan Museum in New York)
, which has a picture of Manet, in 1955, she bought it from a dealer Sam Pfeffer over 200000 dollars. Since then, a lady aged. Her Manet need of restoration, in addition, she wants to leave their children some money, in general, for all these reasons, she again went into the house Pfeffer. Our merchant, thinking that this was restored by Manet and placing it in a new frame, he will be able to resell it for $ 4 million, said to her that she could buy Manet for 3.3 million dollars. But Christie's announced to her that her Manet could reach at auction from 3.5 to 4 million, maybe more, and it offers a guaranteed price of 3 million, of course, Ms. Hevemane would prefer to do without the publicity, privacy sell his painting to a trader in private, but the offer is tempting! As a result, Manet goes for 3.8 million One of the customers who traded for a picture, a house Pfeffer, to desist from further bidding when the picture reached the price that would not allow him to expect to resell it. Vyiglar trading client, whose house Pfeffer expected to sell, of thirty-"golden boy" - he has repeatedly visited the gallery Pfeffer and there has already acquired a small Renoir. Since mediators are removed from the market ».
That's the conclusion of John Welch:
«auction houses could make trades in the halls of a theatrical performance, where the presence of numerous public, always ready to experience the thrill of someone else's expense. They managed to win the confidence of inexperienced collectors, who fear that the traders cheated them, and who think that the public auction reflects a fair price for a work of art. The result of this - we have a whole crowd kollektsionkrov, bankers and lawyers who did not hurt versed in the art, but read all the newspapers ».
This excellent example of several cartoon shows
two phenomena that explain the rise of auction houses at the expense of art dealers:
- distribution among the elite of the business world the idea that prices at public auctions are the real market prices;
- development of on the advice when buying works of art for the above customer, which allows it to do without the help of traffickers, the U.S. museum staff also provides free advice to this customer base in the hope of getting a gift for his museum.
The big auction houses have managed to convince all of its objectivity and professionalism, qualities that are very sensitive to the new breed of collectors from the business world, which is driven by a sense of less philanthropic than their predecessors, the great collectors of the past, and thus more interested in liquidity considerations and profitability, at least in the medium-optics.
In the struggle between auction houses and dealers forces were too heavy, so that traders could remain independent. They have practically no longer any structural advantage: they are inferior to the competence of the expert members of auction houses, on their offer to pay immediately after the deal auction houses meet the proposal to pay in advance and a guaranteed price ... It remains only to privacy - which would have made no effort auction houses, art dealers here are stronger.
(2) A few advantages of art dealers
However, the art dealers still are important uyachastnikami art market, and the fact there are several reasons.
First, in many sectors of the market, where prices are not particularly high, traders udvetsya maintain and own suppliers, and customers are aware that selling prices in the galleries are not necessarily higher than at public auction.
Secondly, because in times of crisis like the one that erupted in the early 90's., Collectors especially appreciate the confidentiality of private transactions - in fact exhibit work at the public auction, it means to take the risk that it will not sell, and all know about it. Then I'll have to wait at least several months and then again to put it in another place, but even this does not guarantee success, as well as information circulates quickly, collectors are looking auction catalogs, and if you try again to sell her work can be really slow in the evaluation.
Finally, it should be noted that
traders are modernizing their strategy, and not just because of the crisis, but also for reasons of a structural nature: more and more traders in London, and Paris reduced their exhibition space and concentrate on his private clientele, working at home.
The only viable competitor auction houses are fair and salons because their conduct is widely advertised and that they present the choice of the concentrated products.
Lately, the market there are new traders, often in the past employees of large Anglo-Saxon auction houses that use the customer list, compiled on the former service, and can thus increase the reward for his talent. Some buy and sell art, etc., without neobhodimyzh capital for investment, providing only brokerage services.
(3) The role of merchants in the regulation of public auctions
Even if traders continue to play an important role, one that no doubt is determined depending on the strategy of major auction houses.
The development of the art market rests on the relationship between dealers and auction houses. These relations are not new - merchants have always bought and sold at auction - but lately they have radically changed, becoming entirely unequal.
The world market for art is a kind of ecosystem in the center of which are Sotheby's and Christie's, while all around them - the set of traders whose function is to provide the necessary regulatory systems within the strategies developed by the auction houses.
Illustrative example: the prospect of placing one of these two Anglo-Saxon auction houses, in a particular quartile of Paris led to a change in the geography of trade art and antiquities of the city.
Although for obvious reasons of confidentiality, the figures are not disclosed nor Anglo-Saxon auction houses, no Parisian commissioner appraisers, it is assumed that traditional trade sobitaet much of the clientele -
between 30%and 50%of the total volume of transactions at public auction.
Regardless of the abnormal functioning of the relationship between traditional auction houses and dealers during the "mad take-off the second half of the 80's. The twentieth century, it should be noted that in recent years
the dynamism of public bidding, in particular, in Paris, contrasted with the reluctance of potential buyers to visit the gallery. Thus, public auctions allow dealers to sell the contents of their store rooms, and items for auction, often sold there are much more expensive than they had unsuccessfully offered in any gallery.
For this reason, many traders hardly conclude transactions in their stores (when they have one), who perform exclusively as showcases.
They exhibit their products at public auction, or to take advantage of the passion of visitors to the auction game - to participate in the auction more fun than a bargain in the gallery - or when the subject is exposed to foreign bidding to try to earn on the difference in price between the two countries.
Regardless of the above-described phenomenon of arbitration, which sometimes gives traders the opportunity to significantly increase revenue from the sale, trade traditsionnyya is in position depending on the auction houses,
preserve their way of impartial arbiter, although in reality they are more and more are an interested party.
We have already seen that the auction houses managed to instill in the minds of the idea that prices at public auctions are fair prices, reflecting the true confrontation between supply and demand for clean and transparent market. It must be added the belief of some art lovers, not meaningless, but not totally conclusive that the market for public procurement is like a wholesale market for traditional traders, and individuals - provided that they are well consulted - they may purchase items at wholesale prices.
However, even if the public auction actually led to the unification of the art market and a more objective prices, you should not think that all practiced at the auction prices reflect long-term reality.
07.12.2008, 15:24
Analysis of auction houses - with greetings from the French Senate Forum
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