[Евгений]

Some features of the picturesque Italian masters of the first half of XVII century
DC Pichugin
Relevance marked in the subject header associated with the problems of assessment and attribution of works of art. Interest in her has intensified not only in connection with purely scientific challenges facing the staff of museums in Russia and abroad. Activating antique market and sophisticated counterfeiting industry, gaining momentum in recent decades, put before the experts and more complicated problems whose solution is possible only through deep-developed theoretical basis, based on a study of features formopostroeniya and technical-technological methods of painting old masters.

The main directions of such research have been formulated in the writings of Ernst Berger [1935], AA Rybnikova [1927 1937], LE Feinberg [1937], DI Kiplika [1927]. In the postwar period in Europe and America, a number of research centers, conducting technical and technological research of museum collections. Established such specialized journals that publish the results of these studies, as «The National Gallery Technical Bulletin», published by the Research Institute of the National Gallery in London. Makes his first attempt lessons material [see: Hamsik, 1982]. [SPOILER] This work was the result of years of study exhibits the largest Russian and foreign museums: the Hermitage, the Museum of Fine Arts Pushkin, the Metropolitan Museum (New York), the National Gallery (Washington), the art museums of Brussels and Vienna. Another important precondition were technical and technological research works of Western European painting from the collection of the Ekaterinburg Museum of Fine Arts, held for fifteen years, T. Maksimova, researcher sector expertise of the Institute of Cultural and Natural Heritage (Moscow), which allowed visibly touch the art practice of Italian artists of interest to us [see: Pichugin, 2002, 56 - 61].

Turning to the theme indicated in the title, we note that the paintings and stylistic devices characteristic of the works of Italian artists of the first half of XVII century., Evolved over a long time. It was used by the tremendous theoretical and practical experience that has accumulated an Italian painting during the previous two centuries 1.

In the second half of the XVI century. the legacy of Titian created a new relationship to blossom. Preferring color harmony paintings, the artists have abandoned the principle of balancing the bright spots of the spectral and began to create color under the laws of colors. These changes were associated both with the historical conditions that determined the aesthetic views of the era, and with the technical methods, in particular with the widespread use of oil painting as the main pictorial material. Thus, at the beginning of XVII century. established a new range of beautifully-plastic problems, which defined the peculiarity of Italian works of this period.

Despite the diversity of selected regional schools of art and creative individuals can make a few general typological features that are always present if not all, the vast majority of Italian paintings of this time. This is a problem of form in connection with the chiaroscuro, perspectiveness construction, format and size of paintings and, finally, with the color of its combination with light and form.

The problem of form was the most important of all the problems emerging in this time period. The transfer of bodies, and especially the human body in all its complexity, expressiveness and beauty has become the main task was working on the Italian master. Man is for them under intense scrutiny. The rich tradition of Renaissance art and XVI century Italian masters gave a great freedom in constructing the human figure, the ability to flawlessly in terms of anatomical features to portray the richness of postures, movements and gestures. The figures appear in different, sometimes extremely difficult angles. Hidden dynamics perspectiveness building forms in conjunction with the methods of typification and generalization of the exterior of the characters gave the Italian paintings special grace and understated beauty. It should be noted at this programmatic failure not only of specific individual portrait resemblance, but also from a psychological interpretation of images of individual characters. Striving for typing lessons, inner significance of the images was one of the important features of Italian art. Expressive gestures, the representativeness of postures combined with restrained force of the movement of figures have become an important compositional techniques of Italian painters of this period.

Hence the special interest in the transfer of plasticity of the human body, methods and techniques, enabling reliable transfer capacity and its development in space. Naturally, in this way were forced to search for plastic masters underlined attention to the problem of light and shadow and lighting in their relationship with the form. To focus the viewer's attention on what is happening, artists restrict the depth of space behind the painting of figures and increased the size of your character in relation to the format of the picture. At the same time painters have tried to maximize the lateral directional lighting to reinforce the impression of objects, but also injected a dark background, which allowed the use of highlight and thus closer to the viewer's major figures, and some areas of space. Italian artists already in the late XVI-XVII centuries. The Renaissance method, you can associate shapes the foreground with a background as a tonally, and with the help line. Form with the broadcast system of light tones within a single local color stains. Painting in general has a special svetonostnostyu and built within a light tonal range.

By the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries. techniques for modeling the cut-off are beginning to change. There are various ways to construct forms to create carnation and draperies. The most typical and widely used technique for writing carnation was the use of the following system of construction: a dark warm brown shadow zone of one or two cold and different degrees teploholodnosti tones with a slightly greenish or bluish tint, and finally, the light is usually warm under a cover lacquer, slightly yellowish color. Thus, in general, carnation lined up within a warm, golden-brown monochrome chosen colors. Light, subtle modulation of color tone wonderfully conveyed a sense of warmth, softness and elasticity of human flesh. The body, face and hands are usually lined up in the boundaries of the scheme. However, the various parts of the body characters were a hierarchy of relationships between lightness. Often the bright light flashed not a person, but the breast image. Accordingly, there were present and the darkest shadows, concentrated in the forearm, underarm, hand, depending on the position of his hands. Shadow on the face or other parts of the body in relation to the most illuminated and the darkest part of the figure could remain within the average, and sometimes a light gray. Accordingly, if the leg or arm were assigned a character into the picture space, they went into a zone of warm halftones, plain brown, ocher-red or slightly yellowish-brown.

Carnation shapes of the second plan also remain entirely within the medium, and sometimes dark and warm tones. This wealth of tones created by the ability of oil paint is translucent in thin layers. In this case, white, laid on the warm dark soil or podmalevku, by law, the chromatic contrast of cool take on different shades depending on the thickness of the paint layer, usually green or blue [see: Rybnikov, 1935, 46]. Thick smears of white opaque, in contrast, had a strong showing ability, and these areas were perceived most bright and vivid.

The impression of the volume is usually associated with the number of semitones. The more tones will be able to reproduce the artist, the more clear and rounded the image. In relation to each other, these halftone areas have varying degrees of lightness and teploholodnosti hue. In general, the decision of naked body parts lying within the same ocher and gold scales.

The second method of constructing forms of the naked body was to reduce the light tones and work mainly in the medium and dark tones. At the same time in the picture is the predominance of shaded areas. Illuminated area takes up less space and became cool in tone. Increase the area of the picture, taken by the cold gray-blue and brownish-gray undertones, and the overall tone of the picture is somewhat dull, evening or night, as if lit by moonlight. Note also that in certain periods of his career working as Guercino and the late Caravaggio.

Another way to create forms carnation is to reduce the number of semitones. Shadow and light in this case played approximately equal roles and occupy approximately equal parts in a composition. Sometimes the shadow areas predominated. However, the region was sharply narrowed semitones why body shape acquired a flattened appearance. Shadows at the same time becomes dense and cold. When writing draperies garments Italian masters of the first half of XVII century. contributed to the dynamics of color composition, and their cut-off the modeling was conducted within a single tone color stains. The critical factor in the current method was unifying character shadows. One of brightness and color tone is laid usually like to write the background, and individual spatial plans and sections of dense shadows. He created that general framework, which harmonized the individual, often contrasting color spots.

The development of color tone within the same local color stains are likely to occur, causing the active bright color halftones, such as red or blue, and then vysvetleniya it by adding a whitewash in the lighted areas and in areas utemneniya dark tones with dark scumbling, often inflicted with colored lacquer . So wrote the bright blue, red, yellow draperies. The most dense and dark shadows are usually toned in color of a dark background and often represented areas prolessirovannogo dark soil. This coloristic decision to make the picture, on the one hand, the necessary tension and create the effect of the internal dynamics of leaf color, but on the other - made it possible to combine the compositional balance and contrast in nature color spots.

All of the above methods of constructing forms implemented through the creation of a special pictorial structure, where each element, including the soil, Underpainting, registration, glaze and cover varnishes, played an important role in creating a beautiful whole.

A huge role in creating the paintings assigned ground. He served not only technological functions, providing a link between the base and beautiful layers, but organically affect the character of the picturesque whole. At the beginning of XVII century. in Italian painting used colored soils - gray, sandy ocher, brown, different shades: from light brown to reddish-brown and dark-brown slightly umbristo rather cold tones. Introduction colored soil is a huge role for all, without exception, the characteristics of the picturesque whole.

If the soil was gray or light ocher, he usually played the role of light in semitones podmalevke. Artist outlined the light whitewash, and the shadows are usually dark gray or brown paint, leaving the field semitones non painted (the color of the soil).

In a dark ground work was done in podmalevke in highlights and midtones are usually white or other light-colored top coats. The soil remained not closed in the areas of dark shadows, sometimes up to the final stages of work. On the set of Italian paintings of this time, you can watch parts of the soil, through a thin layer of translucent glaze or uncovered as a result of previous restorations. By mid-century, when artists began to favor sprawling cursive, dark soil often remained non painted at the junction of different color spots and zones of shadows.

As an integral part of a coloristic paintings, colored soil is generalizing effect on the scenic unit, giving the individual a bright color spots are the color characteristics, which, on the one hand, increased the tonal contrast of the bright spots, but on the other - eliminates patchiness and gave coloring restrained nobility, ranking color within a single color series. Another important property of the color of soil was the work done on them white. In thin layers of white, superimposed on a dark ground, take cool greenish or bluish tint, as mentioned above. Thus, it should be noted that the soils were colored by Italian painters of the first half of XVII century. an integral part of the picturesque process, participating in constructing a picture from the very beginning to its completion.

Another important part of the structure of the painting is Underpainting. It represents the first stage of painting. In podmalevke artist has been working on a form, specifying the composition, the location of individual figures, checking the ratio of masses of color, identifying and building volume. As mentioned above, light gray or ocher ground work was done in podmalevke in highlights white or other light-colored top coats. Shadows prokryvalis dark glaze. Thin layers of white, deposited on the gray ground, created by the law of contrast lightweight warm, slightly pink undertone.

On the dark brown soil colors of different shades work podmalevke conducted in highlights and midtones. In the dark shadows remained unclassified tons of soil. At sites of lights belies the paint (usually white, if it was about writing carnation, or color opacity paint - red, yellow or blue in the image of clothes) superimposing relatively easy, a layer, the density of its corresponding to the average of gray. Lots of shadows, as already mentioned, remained in reserve (non painted) in the color of dark soil.

The next stage of work on the picture is registered. The author has been working, clarifying and, if necessary, adjusting this or that detail in the sections of carnation shape and color of draperies. Continued identification of objects, developed sunlit areas form by multiple layers of paving their bodily opacity of paint, if it was to write the body, or color, if you write draperies. At the stage propisok picture is almost complete in nature.

The last two stages - work in podmalevke and registration - are the most expressive in terms of an individual author's technique, which consists in the special characteristic of individual artists how to paint overlay, its consistency, strength, character stroke. However, there were some common trends fakturopostroeniya.

Smooth on the whole surface of the fabric beginning of the century has to 1620 m years. was more lively and dynamic. Caravaggio at the turn of the XVI-XVII centuries.



















Literature


M., 1989.











1982. 44. S.

Notes

- 2006.