Paintings of the Soviet period is full of brilliant names. Unfortunately, time is sometimes ruthlessly to the memory of the art formerly known authors. Example is the name of the prematurely departed in 1997 a full member of Arts, Honored Art Worker of the RSFSR Filatcheva Oleg Pavlovich (1937-1997). In 2007, academic halls Prechistenke an exhibition of his memory have included a pictorial and graphic works submitted by the artist's family. OP Filatchev better known as a muralist. He worked not only in the USSR but also abroad. Its walls were decorated with paintings of the USSR Embassy in Washington. Some radical citizens linked intravital success with "giperkonformizmom" mirovoreniya artist in relation to power. Leave on their conscience this statement. OP Filatchev entered the history of art as an artist reinterpreting dull aesthetics severe style, enriching it with new image-plastic language. Filatcheva favorite artists were painters of the early Renaissance. It was in this cultural-historical paradigm was the life-giving source of inspiration and creativity of the author of the landmark. Undoubted interest are the series of portraits of his contemporaries, executed in tempera on levkasnomu ground, as well as a magnificent series of graphic works dedicated to the fishermen to the north and military pilots.
Most of the heritage of the artist is included in the collections of major public museums. The market is practically no work of this author. In this regard, there is no information about the artistic heritage. But sorry. Yourself OP Filatcheva not so clearly understood in the context of the cultural perspective of artistic life in the USSR 70-ies. He himself, not only as a painter, but also as a person, were a type of universal and harmonious human era of great style.
Most of the heritage of the artist is included in the collections of major public museums. The market is practically no work of this author. In this regard, there is no information about the artistic heritage. But sorry. Yourself OP Filatcheva not so clearly understood in the context of the cultural perspective of artistic life in the USSR 70-ies. He himself, not only as a painter, but also as a person, were a type of universal and harmonious human era of great style.
Aesthetics monumentalism
Posted 25-01-2010 at 16:26 by OTROK NIKODIM
Aesthetics monumentalism
(some patterns of development of architecture in the USSR and Germany 30-40-ies of XX century)
AY Kozhurin,
SA Bogachev-Prokofiev
Strategy interaction of philosophy, cultural studies and public communications. SPB.: RHGI, 2003. S.597-608
The first half of last century - the time of grandiose attempts to construct a new type of societies that have been undertaken in several countries in Central and Eastern Europe. The most impressive were they in the USSR and Germany, with a crucial role in the implementation of these projects played an art, which is now accepted interpreted as highly politicized and ideologically. Not least, in our view, the degree converse is also true - the very policies in the new conditions become radically aesthetic dimension of life itself was interpreted by the standards of art. Aesthetics of this wing can be described as monumental. In our work we consider some of the principles of the aesthetic on the example of Soviet and German architecture 30-40-ies of XX century.
Let's start with an analysis of the German experience. In January 1933, became chancellor of Germany, Adolf Hitler - a man who considered himself a born artist and architect, no less, if not more, than a politician. Everyone knows the failure of Hitler Youth in the socialization of artistic abilities. Significantly, however, that came out in 1924 from prison, he seriously considered the prospect of changing professions - from politics to the architect. Indeed, during the Munich putsch, the Nazi Party was defeated, and power over her remains took quite popular politicians are left at liberty (General E. Ludendorff, for example). In this situation, Hitler might seem that the appearance on the scene of another oppositional politics of the Weimar Republic was not true. However, in a stunning periodic crises of Germany at that time the profession of architect, especially not having a diploma for special education, also was not enough demand. Hitler stayed in politics, although the nostalgia for the failed career as an architect from time rolled on him.
For our purposes, it would be useful to dwell on the architectural preferences of Hitler. In many ways they were formed under the influence of architecture of the second half of XIX century - the Austrian, German, French. Hitler admired the theater building, erected in different cities of Germany and Austro-Hungarian architects such as H. Heller (1849-1919 gg.) And F. Fellner (1847-1916 gg.). Actually he was very impressed neobarochny style empire of Wilhelm II, designed by architect Ine. But perhaps the greatest delight in Hitler plunged the building and interiors of the Paris Grand Opera "- the creation of C. Garnier (1825-1898 gg.).
In this regard, the liberty of quoting a curious episode that has been preserved in the memoirs of Albert Speer (1905-1981 gg.) - A trusted architect of Hitler, and in the years 1942-45 Minister of arms III Reich. The summer of 1940 was accompanied by Speer defeated Hitler in the capital of France. A column of cars stopped at the entrance to the "Grand Opera" and Hitler, accompanied by his retinue, entered the famous building. Victorious ruler took on the role of guide and immediately began to comment on the interior of a Paris theater, and in such detail that showed his acquaintance with the special literature on the topic. During the inspection he discovered the alterations carried out shortly before, and the concierge confirmed this assumption. In conclusion, "Excursions" Hitler admitted: "See Paris was the dream of my life" [1].
But let us return to the first years of Hitler's rule. The summer of 1934 he is finally able to concentrate in their ukah full executive power. This became possible after the death of two people - E. Remus and Reichsprdsident P. von Gidenburga. Rohm and his followers from the leaders of the assault teams were eliminated on the orders of Hitler's "night of long knives" - June 30 and August 2 died aged Hindenburg, to endorse the action. The Nazis turned his funeral, at the last monument in honor of the German victory in 1914 over the Russian at Tannenberg, a grand ceremony in Wagner's style. The funeral of the famous general, and policies made on his contemporaries very strong impact, indicating the success of monumental Nazi aesthetics [2].
But let us return to architecture. In the early 30-ies the future arbiter of Germany and Europe met with the architect Paul Ludwig Troostom (1878-1934 gg.) Known for finishing the project ocean liner "Germany". Hitler ordered Troostu restructuring Munich palace Barla, where housed the headquarters of the Nazi Party. Later, the famous architect has prepared a draft House germanskogo art, which was also accommodated in the capital of Bavaria. Style Troosta can be described as neoclassical, and should agree with those authors who claimed that under his influence Hitler several revised their initial views on architecture.
In 1934 Troost dies unexpectedly and was replaced by Speer, Hitler's project attracted the attention of the reconstruction of the Nuremberg stadium Tseppelinfeld. The model for restructuring Speer served as the Pergamon Altar. The main stone building of the stadium was 390 m in length and 24m in height - the length of it surpassed the famous Baths of Caracalla almost doubled. Another project Speer those years - a light show for the annual meeting of grassroots leaders of the Nazi party in the same Tseppelinfelde. Columns party members marched at night, illuminated by powerful spotlights 130 air defense. The latter created the light poles at a height of 6 to 8 miles, merging in a glowing sky. This created the illusion of a giant hall: "temple of light" - claimed the witnesses [3].
Having projects Speer, Hitler dedicated it to his vision for architecture: "In the end, of the great historical epochs resemble then only monumental buildings. What remained of the great emperors of the Roman Empire? What could testify about them now, not whether their facilities? In the history of every nation will certainly there have been periods of weakness, but then they started to broadcast facilities the world about their past greatness. Of course, a new national consciousness is not awake alone architecture. But when, after a long period of re-vegetating to awaken a sense of national greatness, then the monuments left over from their ancestors, are the most eloquent reminder. For example, the construction of the Roman Empire, Mussolini will restore communications with the heroic spirit of Rome, if he wishes to do in the eyes of his people, the popular idea of a modern empire. And our facilities to refer to Germany succeeding ages "[4].
In his memoirs, Speer created the legend of himself as politically naive young architect who was fascinated by Hitler and the prospect of world fame: we will not talk about his behavior during the Nuremberg trials. We believe that the outstanding architect was also very clever courtier who, not being representative of the "old guard" could take one of the most important posts in the Nazi hierarchy. Serious researchers argue that at the end of the Second World War he was in fact the second person the state after Hitler's greater Goering, Himmler and Goebbels.
Several examples of the architectural practice of Speer will allow us to illustrate this, tsaredvorcheskuyu, part of his life. Since the beginning of his meteoric career Speer developed the theory of "picturesque ruin" that resulted in Hitler's delight. It was the fact that even after the destruction of the building should produce an impressive impression, commensurate with the ruins of ancient cities. To this end, construction must be used mainly natural materials. It is clear that the point at issue was a question of state and socially significant buildings.
Another example: in preparation for the Olympics in 1936 Hitler was a draft of the stadium concrete with glazed partitions. The chief was furious, he even said that his feet would not be in this stadium. The air smelled an international scandal - the activities of this kind should open the head of the state of the host. Out of this situation found Speer, who has somewhat changed the project, focusing primarily on natural materials. Olympics, thus, was "saved" and served as an excellent advertising Nazi regime.
In gratitude for this and previous achievements Hitler commissioned Speer to build a new Reich Chancellery building, for the old building did not suit him, for reasons of international prestige, as well as irritated aesthetic tastes. Architect in the short term, introduced the draft, and work started. On the whole construction project assigned a year: later, Speer claimed that it was the most frivolous promise made to them for a lifetime. However, builders have to meet the deadline, moreover, all the works were completed two days before the official opening date. January 10, 1939, Hitler received a new residence, where he immediately began to pursue a policy of European, and eventually world domination [5].
Now, would do well to dwell on the origins of the "monumental aesthetic, which was so brilliantly embodied in shpeerovskih projects. His style of German architect tried to carry on the Doric order. It is significant that his first foreign trip he made it to Greece, but not in Italy. Later, however, Speer admitted that the category of "classic" and "simple" can not be attributed to the gigantic proportions, which were used in the construction of buildings on his projects. In this case, a cruel joke on him and his patron, played a reverence for ancient Greece, which were obsessed with the many leaders of German culture XVIII-XX centuries, beginning with its discoverer - I.-I. Winckelmann.
In this regard we can recall some of Hitler's thoughts on the subject which interests us. So in his diary Goebbels kept a curious entry, dated April 8, 1941: "The Fuhrer - very ancient people. He hated Christianity, distorted everything noble in man. Christianity and syphilis, according to Schopenhauer, have made mankind unhappy and unfree. What is the difference between benign smiling Zeus and crucified Christ, writhing in pain. Ancient view of God is incomparably more noble and humane Christian. What is the difference between dark and bright cathedral, filled with air ancient temple. He describes life in ancient Rome - the clarity, the greatness of monumentality. The most amazing republic in history ... The Fuhrer has nothing to do with the gothic. He hates gloomy and vague mysticism. He wants clarity, light and beauty. This life cycle - the ideal of our time. Fuhrer - totally modern man "[6].
These thoughts are recorded in the midst of the Greek campaign of the Wehrmacht, Hitler's order to explain, to prohibit any bombing of Athens - a city which, along with Rome, proved to be the leader of National Socialism sort of Mecca. Moreover, if in the case of Rome this is a political ( "Imperial") sample, in the case of Greece should be talking about the cultural sample - more precisely, cultural and racial-anthropological. This applies, for example, the appreciation of art Miron, is playing in the following passage of Hitler: "2.5 millennium before us, the stonecutter saw a human body so that ... it should be declared a natural in the highest sense of the word" [7]. Accordingly, the present leaders of culture should strive to achieve the same level, and where possible exceed it. October 24, 1939 Hitler, in conversation with his minister of propaganda, describing the evolution of the ideal of female beauty during the first decades of XX century, stated: World rushes to a new antiquity.
The common opinion about reckless German nationalism, Hitler needs serious adjustment. Thus, ironically at the archaeological staff "Anenerbe" ( "Ancestral Heritage" - the institution, which operated under the patronage of Himmler and the SS), he pointed out that while the ancient Germans produced primitive utensils, the Greeks had erected the Parthenon. In this sense, it is logical is the following phrase: "When we ask about our ancestors, we must always point to the Greeks" [8].
A commendable heritage of the ancient Greeks can not even imagine and, nevertheless, closer to the truth was Speer, herein in the years of imprisonment under the sentence of the Nuremberg Tribunal. In his memoirs, he remarked that it was built, essentially repeating the experience of monumental decoration, carried out during the French Revolution. Clearly, however, that the German experience was implemented in the new historical conditions, a more fundamental logistical, and ideological base. This recognition Speer reveals the true roots of the architecture of this kind. Roots, of course, the Roman, not Greek.
Creators of Soviet architecture we are interested in the period, by the way, clearly aware of this report. So AV Shchusev (1873-1949 gg.) At the I Congress of Architects, held in 1934, said: "Public utility buildings of ancient Rome in its scope and artistic quality - the only event of this kind throughout the world architecture. In this olasti immediate successors of Rome is only we, only in a socialist society and socialist construction techniques possible on a larger scale and even greater artistic perfection "[9].
Now you can recall one episode of the Soviet and Germany rivalry associated with the name of Speer, and from the field of architecture. In 1937 he started writing German pavilion for the World Expo, held in Paris. The French, not without ulterior motive, disposed pavilions of the USSR and Germany, facing each other. During one of his trips to Paris, Speer managed to accidentally see a mock-up of the Soviet pavilion, created by BM Iofanom (1891-1976 gg.) And topped with the famous composition VI Mukhina (1889-1953 gg.). German architect, he contrasted his project - Germanic eagle as it blocks the path of the "Worker and Collective Farm." Wits fairly fun of opposing the Communist and National Socialist ideology, as expressed in the design of the pavilions (see, for example, a cartoon J. Effelya "Tired!"). Nevertheless, both projects were well-deserved gold medal of the exhibition organizers of the World [10].
After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact between Moscow and Berlin were established enough to close contacts, including cultural. Architectural projects Speer presented to the Soviet leadership, and Stalin liked them. The Soviet leader invited the author to visit Moscow to explain the construction plans. When Hitler found out about it, he refused to give permission to Speer's visit, explained his refusal by saying that Stalin wanted to keep the best architect III Reich.
Germany in these years has led world war, but as soon as it came the pause, Hitler immediately returned to the grandiose building plans. So immediately after the defeat of France and Hitler's visit to the stricken Paris, issued a decree "On perpetuation of victory." It ordered the immediate resumption of construction in Berlin and Nuremberg. When Speer said that he lacked material for this construction, the Nazi leader Goering ordered the release for these purposes at least 84000 tons of pig iron a year. For the construction Terboven organized the export of Norwegian granite in Germany, which has a special transport fleet. Contracts were placed among the leading European construction companies. Speer, Hitler admitted: "I will start construction before the end of the war. I will not give the war to prevent the implementation of my plans "[11].
It was, first, centers on the Germanic world, where the main building scheduled for completion by 1950. Apart from Berlin, who was to become a city of "Germany" - the capital of a huge empire, and Nuremberg, they were also classified by the Austrian Vienna and Linz. The model for the reconstruction of Linz - the city where the future ruler of Germany, spent his youth, was elected Budapest, cleverly located along the banks of the Danube. In Linz planned to build a house district administration NSDAP with a giant hall for meetings and special bell tower, where the death had to be installed Tomb of Hitler. In addition, the city planned to build a city hall, a large theater, a museum of arms and a monument in honor of the Anschluss. Finally, a special place in Hitler's plan is to perpetuate the memory of A. Bruckner - an outstanding composer, whose music Hitler admired [12].
But, perhaps, the favorite child of the leader of the German people in the field of architecture was the notorious «Große Halle». The idea of building such a building came from Hitler in 1924 - immediately after his release from Landsberg Fortress. In the later projects «Große Halle» appears as a vast palace, topped with a unique dome (its diameter - 250 m). The total height of the building was to be 290 m. The size of the building were such that the Roman church of St. Peter's could fit in it 17 times. As a kind of counterbalance to the giant dome of the palace was planned to erect a triumphal arch, a height of 120 m. It had to be carved the names of each of the 1.8 million Germans who died on the fields of World War I [13].
In the main hall of the palace dome, designed for 180,000 spectators, Hitler planned to deliver their main speech is the culmination of a giant mystery power. Contemporaries noted that during the speeches at rallies, Hitler did not so much to exhaustion as draw energy from the crowd. Merging with huge masses of the people was for him a kind of aphrodisiac, after which he found more confidence in myself. This point is undoubtedly one of the elements of monumental aesthetics.
How seriously Germanic dictator attitude to the child presents Speer: "When the end of our plans, Hitler learned that the Soviet Union gathered to build a Palace of Soviets, which must be above three hundred feet, and crown him the statue of Lenin, he was extremely annoyed. His perspective is clearly upset that he did not raise the greatest monumental structure of the world, and in addition to depressed consciousness, that is not in his power to cancel the idea of Stalin, issuing any decree. In the end, he consoled himself with the thought that his palace will still be unique: "Well, why should any skyscraper - a little more, slightly smaller, a little higher, just below. Dome - is what distinguishes our building from the rest! "After the outbreak of war with the Soviet Union I had the opportunity to make sure that the idea of competition in Moscow much more oppressed by it than he is admitted. "Now, - he said - with their skyscrapers will be finished once and for all! "" [14].
In his memoirs Speer tries to define your own style, but at the same time to trace the relationship between architecture and politics. As we have seen, he rejects the Greek origins. To characterize the dominant style of the era German architect uses the term "neo-classicism. It is believed, said Speer, that the neo-classicism - the predominant style of totalitarian states. It's not entirely true, because the architecture of this kind is characteristic of Washington, London and Paris the first half of XX century, no less than Rome, Moscow or shpeerovsko-nazi of reconstruction projects in Berlin.
The fact that neo-classicism - the dominant style of the era, Speer saw how, during his visits to Paris, and during his stay in occupied Kiev in 1942. Tracing the genealogy of Soviet architecture, he points out that immediately after the revolution home built in the style of avant-garde artists such as Le Corbusier, May or El Lissitzky, the rise to power of Stalin begins to return to the conservative traditions of classicism - a new course level. It was done in neoclassical style building of the Supreme Council of Ukraine and several other buildings. In particular emotion Speer led the figures of athletes on the Kiev stadium, copied from the antique sculptures, but dressed in shorts and bathing suits.
Returning to identify the sources of their own style, Speer is drawn to the experience of the French architecture of the late XVIII-early XIX centuries. Instead of ornate Rococo "old regime" comes the classic style of the era of the revolution. In turn, it replaces the Napoleonic empire, unsurpassed in wealth. The luxury of the Empire, however, - a symptom of decline, which became clear after the collapse of Napoleon's empire. The same is even more true in regard to Hitler's "neoampira" - says Speer.
Now let us turn to the topic of the design of monuments and memorials to the Soviet architects and artists during the Great Patriotic War and in the early postwar years. Long before the war, in 1942 and 1943, in Moscow there is a competition in which emerged the first approaches to image-plastic solution of the topic. Here's how to characterize these projects a modern scholar: "In most projects, the Pantheon has been the heroes of World War II used the classical form of the ancient temple in the form of the rotunda. At the same time, some of them clearly felt the desire for a new way to interpret the forms of ancient architecture: the church pavilion (architect M. Oleneva), Russian gravestones mounds (the project architects Zakharova and Z. Chernysheva) "[15].
The most famous of the memorial is a monument to Soviet Army soldiers who fell in battle against fascism, in Treptow Park in Berlin. Of the 50 works submitted for the contest won the project of sculptor EV Vucheticha (1908-1974 gg.) And the architect Ya.B. Belopolsky (1916-1993 gg.). Authors do not solve the problem of synthesis of the arts: the organization of significant architectural space (memorial is about 200000 sq. M), plastic expressiveness sculptures, penetration of the text, beaten in a stone, etc. Further, many compositional devices of the memorial ensemble in Treptow Park will be used as the sponsors themselves - cf. ensemble on Mamaev Hill in Stalingrad, and their numerous followers. Significantly, however, that the benchmark performance for them is not ancient Russian art, that we have seen in a number of projects, Wartime, and architectural ensembles of St. Petersburg, by Carlo Rossi.
The idea of the Pantheon, but not folk heroes, and leaders of the resurrected again after the death of Stalin. And finally prevailed images of traditional European pantheons (by the way, when planning for the Große Halle sample was also adopted by the Roman Pantheon). In all the projects used by the canons of classical architecture of a warrant, and previous attempts to apply the features of Russian architecture finally taper off. This fact seems to us quite natural. Architecture of medieval Russia, using the characteristics of PA Florensky, typologically close to the ancient Greek, and monumental aesthetics, despite all the seduction of its theoreticians and creators, yet essentially rooted in the soil of Roman culture.
In conclusion, we note that not only the notorious similarity of political regimes, but also its own logic of development of art created in common, that is found in the Soviet and German architecture, we examined the historical period. We are referring to the Roman roots are evident in the work of the architects of the two countries in these years.
Notes
[1] A. Speer Memoirs. - Smolensk: Rusich, 1998. - S. 237-238 (hereinafter - Speer).
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[2] give evidence EK Medtner - an emigrant from Russia and a prominent apologist for the German culture. In a letter to his wife's brother, struck by the "tragic-heroic" the atmosphere of this action, he follows expressed his delight: "... breathe the Nibelungs, a monument on the site of the battle exactly tannebergskoy Valhalla. Eulogy of Hitler, too, is ambitious and has a very Germanic-pagan nature "(cited in: M. Yunggren Russian Mephistopheles. Life and Works of Emilia Medtner. - St. Petersburg.: Academic Project, 2001. - P.187).
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[3] In his memoirs Speer wrote: "I believe that this" temple of light "was the first product of light architecture of this kind, and for me it is not only an excellent spatial resolution but only one of my works emerging from their time (Shpeer. - P.79).
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[4] Speer. - P.75. J. Merkert article "Pandora's Box (comments to the study of the aesthetics of power in the XX Century)" follows describes the situation: "In the 30's, when the media is not so widely used, and radio and cinema has just begun to serve as a means of manipulation of the masses, becoming sophisticated tools of a totalitarian regime, the classical arts were still their special meaning. First of all, architecture and art were used for proprieties of power "(Moscow - Berlin /Berlin - Moskau, 1900-1950: Visual arts, photography, architecture, theater, literature, music, film /Nauch. Red. Antonova, IA, Merkert J. - Moscow, Berlin, Munich: Galart, Prestel, 1996. - P.358. Then - Moscow - Berlin).
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[5] During the war the building designed by Speer, was destroyed. He was later demolished and the remaining stones and marble have informed the Soviet memorial in Treptow Park. Of course, it was not only in an acute shortage of materials, but also in an effort to put into place winners of the shattered enemy, both in the sphere of the spirit. Recall the Romans erected their temples on the site of the sanctuaries of conquered tribes or Christians, who set the church on the site of pagan temples, using the latest materials as a basis.
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[6] The Goebbels Diaris. 1939-41. Ed. Fred Taylor. - London, 1982. - P.304-305.
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[7] Lehmann-Haupt H. Art under a Dictatoship. - New York, 1954. - P.97.
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[8] G. Picker table talk Hitler. - Smolensk: Rusich, 1993. - P.57. Similar thinking led Hitler and Speer (see Speer. - P.131).
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[9] Op. By: Golomshtok IN Totalitarian art. - M.: Galart, 1994. - P.247.
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[10] Nevertheless, it should be noted that our authors have created a more dynamic piece of art than their German counterparts. The boy and girl as to convey the desire ahead of the Soviet people, their movements are compatible, the figure reached a powerful desire to advance. In Speer and sculptor J. thoraco (author's composition "Partnership" at the entrance to the German Pavilion) dominates static - typologically close interpretation of National Socialism as a "bulwark against Bolshevism" in the final stages of World War II.
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[11] Speer. - P.250. Speer said that Hitler spoke these words 29 November 1941, when the Eastern Front had become apparent signs of impending catastrophe.
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[12] A few distractions from the main subject of this article, we note that a peculiar attraction to monumentalism found in the music preferences of Hitler. In addition to the well-known admiration of Wagner's music dramas, he attracted large-scale works of Bruckner, and Beethoven's Symphony No. 9. While the music of XVIII century, Hitler remained indifferent.
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[13] Grimace history: the idea of revenge in this case proved to be a harbinger of even greater disaster. World War II not only claimed a few times more lives of the Germans than the previous one, but also ruined the major cities in Germany. Were destroyed and many buildings erected in the early years of the Nazi regime.
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[14] Ibid. - S.214-215. Image reconstruction Große Halle, in relation to the building, the Reichstag and the Brandenburg Gate is placed in the publication: Moscow - Berlin. - S.424. The building is really staggering in its dimensions: the truth in the project was one snag, which, if successful could play a cruel joke with the customer. The fact is that in such a huge building speaker simply would not have seen the vast majority of listeners. The same problem, but on the other end put to a standstill the initiators of the construction of the Palace of Soviets in Moscow (the author - BM Iofan, various options for the project are reproduced in the catalog: Moscow - Berlin. - S.348, 429, 514). From it had to be abandoned not only because of shortfalls in war-torn country, but also because most of the year a giant statue of Lenin, crowns the building, would be covered with clouds - and politically, and from an aesthetic point of view of this fact to the authorities was absolutely unacceptable.
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[15] Manin A. From the history of the design of monuments and memorials in Moscow and Berlin in 1940 and early 1950 //Moscow - Berlin. - S.475.
Based on materials from the resource:
http://anthropology.ru/ru/texts/kozhurin/monument.html
(some patterns of development of architecture in the USSR and Germany 30-40-ies of XX century)
AY Kozhurin,
SA Bogachev-Prokofiev
Strategy interaction of philosophy, cultural studies and public communications. SPB.: RHGI, 2003. S.597-608
The first half of last century - the time of grandiose attempts to construct a new type of societies that have been undertaken in several countries in Central and Eastern Europe. The most impressive were they in the USSR and Germany, with a crucial role in the implementation of these projects played an art, which is now accepted interpreted as highly politicized and ideologically. Not least, in our view, the degree converse is also true - the very policies in the new conditions become radically aesthetic dimension of life itself was interpreted by the standards of art. Aesthetics of this wing can be described as monumental. In our work we consider some of the principles of the aesthetic on the example of Soviet and German architecture 30-40-ies of XX century.
Let's start with an analysis of the German experience. In January 1933, became chancellor of Germany, Adolf Hitler - a man who considered himself a born artist and architect, no less, if not more, than a politician. Everyone knows the failure of Hitler Youth in the socialization of artistic abilities. Significantly, however, that came out in 1924 from prison, he seriously considered the prospect of changing professions - from politics to the architect. Indeed, during the Munich putsch, the Nazi Party was defeated, and power over her remains took quite popular politicians are left at liberty (General E. Ludendorff, for example). In this situation, Hitler might seem that the appearance on the scene of another oppositional politics of the Weimar Republic was not true. However, in a stunning periodic crises of Germany at that time the profession of architect, especially not having a diploma for special education, also was not enough demand. Hitler stayed in politics, although the nostalgia for the failed career as an architect from time rolled on him.
For our purposes, it would be useful to dwell on the architectural preferences of Hitler. In many ways they were formed under the influence of architecture of the second half of XIX century - the Austrian, German, French. Hitler admired the theater building, erected in different cities of Germany and Austro-Hungarian architects such as H. Heller (1849-1919 gg.) And F. Fellner (1847-1916 gg.). Actually he was very impressed neobarochny style empire of Wilhelm II, designed by architect Ine. But perhaps the greatest delight in Hitler plunged the building and interiors of the Paris Grand Opera "- the creation of C. Garnier (1825-1898 gg.).
In this regard, the liberty of quoting a curious episode that has been preserved in the memoirs of Albert Speer (1905-1981 gg.) - A trusted architect of Hitler, and in the years 1942-45 Minister of arms III Reich. The summer of 1940 was accompanied by Speer defeated Hitler in the capital of France. A column of cars stopped at the entrance to the "Grand Opera" and Hitler, accompanied by his retinue, entered the famous building. Victorious ruler took on the role of guide and immediately began to comment on the interior of a Paris theater, and in such detail that showed his acquaintance with the special literature on the topic. During the inspection he discovered the alterations carried out shortly before, and the concierge confirmed this assumption. In conclusion, "Excursions" Hitler admitted: "See Paris was the dream of my life" [1].
But let us return to the first years of Hitler's rule. The summer of 1934 he is finally able to concentrate in their ukah full executive power. This became possible after the death of two people - E. Remus and Reichsprdsident P. von Gidenburga. Rohm and his followers from the leaders of the assault teams were eliminated on the orders of Hitler's "night of long knives" - June 30 and August 2 died aged Hindenburg, to endorse the action. The Nazis turned his funeral, at the last monument in honor of the German victory in 1914 over the Russian at Tannenberg, a grand ceremony in Wagner's style. The funeral of the famous general, and policies made on his contemporaries very strong impact, indicating the success of monumental Nazi aesthetics [2].
But let us return to architecture. In the early 30-ies the future arbiter of Germany and Europe met with the architect Paul Ludwig Troostom (1878-1934 gg.) Known for finishing the project ocean liner "Germany". Hitler ordered Troostu restructuring Munich palace Barla, where housed the headquarters of the Nazi Party. Later, the famous architect has prepared a draft House germanskogo art, which was also accommodated in the capital of Bavaria. Style Troosta can be described as neoclassical, and should agree with those authors who claimed that under his influence Hitler several revised their initial views on architecture.
In 1934 Troost dies unexpectedly and was replaced by Speer, Hitler's project attracted the attention of the reconstruction of the Nuremberg stadium Tseppelinfeld. The model for restructuring Speer served as the Pergamon Altar. The main stone building of the stadium was 390 m in length and 24m in height - the length of it surpassed the famous Baths of Caracalla almost doubled. Another project Speer those years - a light show for the annual meeting of grassroots leaders of the Nazi party in the same Tseppelinfelde. Columns party members marched at night, illuminated by powerful spotlights 130 air defense. The latter created the light poles at a height of 6 to 8 miles, merging in a glowing sky. This created the illusion of a giant hall: "temple of light" - claimed the witnesses [3].
Having projects Speer, Hitler dedicated it to his vision for architecture: "In the end, of the great historical epochs resemble then only monumental buildings. What remained of the great emperors of the Roman Empire? What could testify about them now, not whether their facilities? In the history of every nation will certainly there have been periods of weakness, but then they started to broadcast facilities the world about their past greatness. Of course, a new national consciousness is not awake alone architecture. But when, after a long period of re-vegetating to awaken a sense of national greatness, then the monuments left over from their ancestors, are the most eloquent reminder. For example, the construction of the Roman Empire, Mussolini will restore communications with the heroic spirit of Rome, if he wishes to do in the eyes of his people, the popular idea of a modern empire. And our facilities to refer to Germany succeeding ages "[4].
In his memoirs, Speer created the legend of himself as politically naive young architect who was fascinated by Hitler and the prospect of world fame: we will not talk about his behavior during the Nuremberg trials. We believe that the outstanding architect was also very clever courtier who, not being representative of the "old guard" could take one of the most important posts in the Nazi hierarchy. Serious researchers argue that at the end of the Second World War he was in fact the second person the state after Hitler's greater Goering, Himmler and Goebbels.
Several examples of the architectural practice of Speer will allow us to illustrate this, tsaredvorcheskuyu, part of his life. Since the beginning of his meteoric career Speer developed the theory of "picturesque ruin" that resulted in Hitler's delight. It was the fact that even after the destruction of the building should produce an impressive impression, commensurate with the ruins of ancient cities. To this end, construction must be used mainly natural materials. It is clear that the point at issue was a question of state and socially significant buildings.
Another example: in preparation for the Olympics in 1936 Hitler was a draft of the stadium concrete with glazed partitions. The chief was furious, he even said that his feet would not be in this stadium. The air smelled an international scandal - the activities of this kind should open the head of the state of the host. Out of this situation found Speer, who has somewhat changed the project, focusing primarily on natural materials. Olympics, thus, was "saved" and served as an excellent advertising Nazi regime.
In gratitude for this and previous achievements Hitler commissioned Speer to build a new Reich Chancellery building, for the old building did not suit him, for reasons of international prestige, as well as irritated aesthetic tastes. Architect in the short term, introduced the draft, and work started. On the whole construction project assigned a year: later, Speer claimed that it was the most frivolous promise made to them for a lifetime. However, builders have to meet the deadline, moreover, all the works were completed two days before the official opening date. January 10, 1939, Hitler received a new residence, where he immediately began to pursue a policy of European, and eventually world domination [5].
Now, would do well to dwell on the origins of the "monumental aesthetic, which was so brilliantly embodied in shpeerovskih projects. His style of German architect tried to carry on the Doric order. It is significant that his first foreign trip he made it to Greece, but not in Italy. Later, however, Speer admitted that the category of "classic" and "simple" can not be attributed to the gigantic proportions, which were used in the construction of buildings on his projects. In this case, a cruel joke on him and his patron, played a reverence for ancient Greece, which were obsessed with the many leaders of German culture XVIII-XX centuries, beginning with its discoverer - I.-I. Winckelmann.
In this regard we can recall some of Hitler's thoughts on the subject which interests us. So in his diary Goebbels kept a curious entry, dated April 8, 1941: "The Fuhrer - very ancient people. He hated Christianity, distorted everything noble in man. Christianity and syphilis, according to Schopenhauer, have made mankind unhappy and unfree. What is the difference between benign smiling Zeus and crucified Christ, writhing in pain. Ancient view of God is incomparably more noble and humane Christian. What is the difference between dark and bright cathedral, filled with air ancient temple. He describes life in ancient Rome - the clarity, the greatness of monumentality. The most amazing republic in history ... The Fuhrer has nothing to do with the gothic. He hates gloomy and vague mysticism. He wants clarity, light and beauty. This life cycle - the ideal of our time. Fuhrer - totally modern man "[6].
These thoughts are recorded in the midst of the Greek campaign of the Wehrmacht, Hitler's order to explain, to prohibit any bombing of Athens - a city which, along with Rome, proved to be the leader of National Socialism sort of Mecca. Moreover, if in the case of Rome this is a political ( "Imperial") sample, in the case of Greece should be talking about the cultural sample - more precisely, cultural and racial-anthropological. This applies, for example, the appreciation of art Miron, is playing in the following passage of Hitler: "2.5 millennium before us, the stonecutter saw a human body so that ... it should be declared a natural in the highest sense of the word" [7]. Accordingly, the present leaders of culture should strive to achieve the same level, and where possible exceed it. October 24, 1939 Hitler, in conversation with his minister of propaganda, describing the evolution of the ideal of female beauty during the first decades of XX century, stated: World rushes to a new antiquity.
The common opinion about reckless German nationalism, Hitler needs serious adjustment. Thus, ironically at the archaeological staff "Anenerbe" ( "Ancestral Heritage" - the institution, which operated under the patronage of Himmler and the SS), he pointed out that while the ancient Germans produced primitive utensils, the Greeks had erected the Parthenon. In this sense, it is logical is the following phrase: "When we ask about our ancestors, we must always point to the Greeks" [8].
A commendable heritage of the ancient Greeks can not even imagine and, nevertheless, closer to the truth was Speer, herein in the years of imprisonment under the sentence of the Nuremberg Tribunal. In his memoirs, he remarked that it was built, essentially repeating the experience of monumental decoration, carried out during the French Revolution. Clearly, however, that the German experience was implemented in the new historical conditions, a more fundamental logistical, and ideological base. This recognition Speer reveals the true roots of the architecture of this kind. Roots, of course, the Roman, not Greek.
Creators of Soviet architecture we are interested in the period, by the way, clearly aware of this report. So AV Shchusev (1873-1949 gg.) At the I Congress of Architects, held in 1934, said: "Public utility buildings of ancient Rome in its scope and artistic quality - the only event of this kind throughout the world architecture. In this olasti immediate successors of Rome is only we, only in a socialist society and socialist construction techniques possible on a larger scale and even greater artistic perfection "[9].
Now you can recall one episode of the Soviet and Germany rivalry associated with the name of Speer, and from the field of architecture. In 1937 he started writing German pavilion for the World Expo, held in Paris. The French, not without ulterior motive, disposed pavilions of the USSR and Germany, facing each other. During one of his trips to Paris, Speer managed to accidentally see a mock-up of the Soviet pavilion, created by BM Iofanom (1891-1976 gg.) And topped with the famous composition VI Mukhina (1889-1953 gg.). German architect, he contrasted his project - Germanic eagle as it blocks the path of the "Worker and Collective Farm." Wits fairly fun of opposing the Communist and National Socialist ideology, as expressed in the design of the pavilions (see, for example, a cartoon J. Effelya "Tired!"). Nevertheless, both projects were well-deserved gold medal of the exhibition organizers of the World [10].
After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact between Moscow and Berlin were established enough to close contacts, including cultural. Architectural projects Speer presented to the Soviet leadership, and Stalin liked them. The Soviet leader invited the author to visit Moscow to explain the construction plans. When Hitler found out about it, he refused to give permission to Speer's visit, explained his refusal by saying that Stalin wanted to keep the best architect III Reich.
Germany in these years has led world war, but as soon as it came the pause, Hitler immediately returned to the grandiose building plans. So immediately after the defeat of France and Hitler's visit to the stricken Paris, issued a decree "On perpetuation of victory." It ordered the immediate resumption of construction in Berlin and Nuremberg. When Speer said that he lacked material for this construction, the Nazi leader Goering ordered the release for these purposes at least 84000 tons of pig iron a year. For the construction Terboven organized the export of Norwegian granite in Germany, which has a special transport fleet. Contracts were placed among the leading European construction companies. Speer, Hitler admitted: "I will start construction before the end of the war. I will not give the war to prevent the implementation of my plans "[11].
It was, first, centers on the Germanic world, where the main building scheduled for completion by 1950. Apart from Berlin, who was to become a city of "Germany" - the capital of a huge empire, and Nuremberg, they were also classified by the Austrian Vienna and Linz. The model for the reconstruction of Linz - the city where the future ruler of Germany, spent his youth, was elected Budapest, cleverly located along the banks of the Danube. In Linz planned to build a house district administration NSDAP with a giant hall for meetings and special bell tower, where the death had to be installed Tomb of Hitler. In addition, the city planned to build a city hall, a large theater, a museum of arms and a monument in honor of the Anschluss. Finally, a special place in Hitler's plan is to perpetuate the memory of A. Bruckner - an outstanding composer, whose music Hitler admired [12].
But, perhaps, the favorite child of the leader of the German people in the field of architecture was the notorious «Große Halle». The idea of building such a building came from Hitler in 1924 - immediately after his release from Landsberg Fortress. In the later projects «Große Halle» appears as a vast palace, topped with a unique dome (its diameter - 250 m). The total height of the building was to be 290 m. The size of the building were such that the Roman church of St. Peter's could fit in it 17 times. As a kind of counterbalance to the giant dome of the palace was planned to erect a triumphal arch, a height of 120 m. It had to be carved the names of each of the 1.8 million Germans who died on the fields of World War I [13].
In the main hall of the palace dome, designed for 180,000 spectators, Hitler planned to deliver their main speech is the culmination of a giant mystery power. Contemporaries noted that during the speeches at rallies, Hitler did not so much to exhaustion as draw energy from the crowd. Merging with huge masses of the people was for him a kind of aphrodisiac, after which he found more confidence in myself. This point is undoubtedly one of the elements of monumental aesthetics.
How seriously Germanic dictator attitude to the child presents Speer: "When the end of our plans, Hitler learned that the Soviet Union gathered to build a Palace of Soviets, which must be above three hundred feet, and crown him the statue of Lenin, he was extremely annoyed. His perspective is clearly upset that he did not raise the greatest monumental structure of the world, and in addition to depressed consciousness, that is not in his power to cancel the idea of Stalin, issuing any decree. In the end, he consoled himself with the thought that his palace will still be unique: "Well, why should any skyscraper - a little more, slightly smaller, a little higher, just below. Dome - is what distinguishes our building from the rest! "After the outbreak of war with the Soviet Union I had the opportunity to make sure that the idea of competition in Moscow much more oppressed by it than he is admitted. "Now, - he said - with their skyscrapers will be finished once and for all! "" [14].
In his memoirs Speer tries to define your own style, but at the same time to trace the relationship between architecture and politics. As we have seen, he rejects the Greek origins. To characterize the dominant style of the era German architect uses the term "neo-classicism. It is believed, said Speer, that the neo-classicism - the predominant style of totalitarian states. It's not entirely true, because the architecture of this kind is characteristic of Washington, London and Paris the first half of XX century, no less than Rome, Moscow or shpeerovsko-nazi of reconstruction projects in Berlin.
The fact that neo-classicism - the dominant style of the era, Speer saw how, during his visits to Paris, and during his stay in occupied Kiev in 1942. Tracing the genealogy of Soviet architecture, he points out that immediately after the revolution home built in the style of avant-garde artists such as Le Corbusier, May or El Lissitzky, the rise to power of Stalin begins to return to the conservative traditions of classicism - a new course level. It was done in neoclassical style building of the Supreme Council of Ukraine and several other buildings. In particular emotion Speer led the figures of athletes on the Kiev stadium, copied from the antique sculptures, but dressed in shorts and bathing suits.
Returning to identify the sources of their own style, Speer is drawn to the experience of the French architecture of the late XVIII-early XIX centuries. Instead of ornate Rococo "old regime" comes the classic style of the era of the revolution. In turn, it replaces the Napoleonic empire, unsurpassed in wealth. The luxury of the Empire, however, - a symptom of decline, which became clear after the collapse of Napoleon's empire. The same is even more true in regard to Hitler's "neoampira" - says Speer.
Now let us turn to the topic of the design of monuments and memorials to the Soviet architects and artists during the Great Patriotic War and in the early postwar years. Long before the war, in 1942 and 1943, in Moscow there is a competition in which emerged the first approaches to image-plastic solution of the topic. Here's how to characterize these projects a modern scholar: "In most projects, the Pantheon has been the heroes of World War II used the classical form of the ancient temple in the form of the rotunda. At the same time, some of them clearly felt the desire for a new way to interpret the forms of ancient architecture: the church pavilion (architect M. Oleneva), Russian gravestones mounds (the project architects Zakharova and Z. Chernysheva) "[15].
The most famous of the memorial is a monument to Soviet Army soldiers who fell in battle against fascism, in Treptow Park in Berlin. Of the 50 works submitted for the contest won the project of sculptor EV Vucheticha (1908-1974 gg.) And the architect Ya.B. Belopolsky (1916-1993 gg.). Authors do not solve the problem of synthesis of the arts: the organization of significant architectural space (memorial is about 200000 sq. M), plastic expressiveness sculptures, penetration of the text, beaten in a stone, etc. Further, many compositional devices of the memorial ensemble in Treptow Park will be used as the sponsors themselves - cf. ensemble on Mamaev Hill in Stalingrad, and their numerous followers. Significantly, however, that the benchmark performance for them is not ancient Russian art, that we have seen in a number of projects, Wartime, and architectural ensembles of St. Petersburg, by Carlo Rossi.
The idea of the Pantheon, but not folk heroes, and leaders of the resurrected again after the death of Stalin. And finally prevailed images of traditional European pantheons (by the way, when planning for the Große Halle sample was also adopted by the Roman Pantheon). In all the projects used by the canons of classical architecture of a warrant, and previous attempts to apply the features of Russian architecture finally taper off. This fact seems to us quite natural. Architecture of medieval Russia, using the characteristics of PA Florensky, typologically close to the ancient Greek, and monumental aesthetics, despite all the seduction of its theoreticians and creators, yet essentially rooted in the soil of Roman culture.
In conclusion, we note that not only the notorious similarity of political regimes, but also its own logic of development of art created in common, that is found in the Soviet and German architecture, we examined the historical period. We are referring to the Roman roots are evident in the work of the architects of the two countries in these years.
Notes
[1] A. Speer Memoirs. - Smolensk: Rusich, 1998. - S. 237-238 (hereinafter - Speer).
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[2] give evidence EK Medtner - an emigrant from Russia and a prominent apologist for the German culture. In a letter to his wife's brother, struck by the "tragic-heroic" the atmosphere of this action, he follows expressed his delight: "... breathe the Nibelungs, a monument on the site of the battle exactly tannebergskoy Valhalla. Eulogy of Hitler, too, is ambitious and has a very Germanic-pagan nature "(cited in: M. Yunggren Russian Mephistopheles. Life and Works of Emilia Medtner. - St. Petersburg.: Academic Project, 2001. - P.187).
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[3] In his memoirs Speer wrote: "I believe that this" temple of light "was the first product of light architecture of this kind, and for me it is not only an excellent spatial resolution but only one of my works emerging from their time (Shpeer. - P.79).
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[4] Speer. - P.75. J. Merkert article "Pandora's Box (comments to the study of the aesthetics of power in the XX Century)" follows describes the situation: "In the 30's, when the media is not so widely used, and radio and cinema has just begun to serve as a means of manipulation of the masses, becoming sophisticated tools of a totalitarian regime, the classical arts were still their special meaning. First of all, architecture and art were used for proprieties of power "(Moscow - Berlin /Berlin - Moskau, 1900-1950: Visual arts, photography, architecture, theater, literature, music, film /Nauch. Red. Antonova, IA, Merkert J. - Moscow, Berlin, Munich: Galart, Prestel, 1996. - P.358. Then - Moscow - Berlin).
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[5] During the war the building designed by Speer, was destroyed. He was later demolished and the remaining stones and marble have informed the Soviet memorial in Treptow Park. Of course, it was not only in an acute shortage of materials, but also in an effort to put into place winners of the shattered enemy, both in the sphere of the spirit. Recall the Romans erected their temples on the site of the sanctuaries of conquered tribes or Christians, who set the church on the site of pagan temples, using the latest materials as a basis.
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[6] The Goebbels Diaris. 1939-41. Ed. Fred Taylor. - London, 1982. - P.304-305.
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[7] Lehmann-Haupt H. Art under a Dictatoship. - New York, 1954. - P.97.
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[8] G. Picker table talk Hitler. - Smolensk: Rusich, 1993. - P.57. Similar thinking led Hitler and Speer (see Speer. - P.131).
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[9] Op. By: Golomshtok IN Totalitarian art. - M.: Galart, 1994. - P.247.
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[10] Nevertheless, it should be noted that our authors have created a more dynamic piece of art than their German counterparts. The boy and girl as to convey the desire ahead of the Soviet people, their movements are compatible, the figure reached a powerful desire to advance. In Speer and sculptor J. thoraco (author's composition "Partnership" at the entrance to the German Pavilion) dominates static - typologically close interpretation of National Socialism as a "bulwark against Bolshevism" in the final stages of World War II.
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[11] Speer. - P.250. Speer said that Hitler spoke these words 29 November 1941, when the Eastern Front had become apparent signs of impending catastrophe.
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[12] A few distractions from the main subject of this article, we note that a peculiar attraction to monumentalism found in the music preferences of Hitler. In addition to the well-known admiration of Wagner's music dramas, he attracted large-scale works of Bruckner, and Beethoven's Symphony No. 9. While the music of XVIII century, Hitler remained indifferent.
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[13] Grimace history: the idea of revenge in this case proved to be a harbinger of even greater disaster. World War II not only claimed a few times more lives of the Germans than the previous one, but also ruined the major cities in Germany. Were destroyed and many buildings erected in the early years of the Nazi regime.
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[14] Ibid. - S.214-215. Image reconstruction Große Halle, in relation to the building, the Reichstag and the Brandenburg Gate is placed in the publication: Moscow - Berlin. - S.424. The building is really staggering in its dimensions: the truth in the project was one snag, which, if successful could play a cruel joke with the customer. The fact is that in such a huge building speaker simply would not have seen the vast majority of listeners. The same problem, but on the other end put to a standstill the initiators of the construction of the Palace of Soviets in Moscow (the author - BM Iofan, various options for the project are reproduced in the catalog: Moscow - Berlin. - S.348, 429, 514). From it had to be abandoned not only because of shortfalls in war-torn country, but also because most of the year a giant statue of Lenin, crowns the building, would be covered with clouds - and politically, and from an aesthetic point of view of this fact to the authorities was absolutely unacceptable.
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[15] Manin A. From the history of the design of monuments and memorials in Moscow and Berlin in 1940 and early 1950 //Moscow - Berlin. - S.475.
Based on materials from the resource:
http://anthropology.ru/ru/texts/kozhurin/monument.html
